反语幽默属性功能研究

导语：反语幽默属性功能研究一文来源于网友上传，不代表本站观点，若需要原创文章可咨询客服老师，欢迎参考。

[Abstract]Verbalirony,asawidelyusedfigureofspeech,hasreceivedconsiderableattentionfromcognitivepsychologistsandlinguists.Thetraditionalstudyofverbalironyfromrhetoricalandaestheticalapproacheshasbeenshiftedtocurrentcognitiveandpragmaticinvestigation.Inthispaper,focuswillbelaiduponthehumorfeatureofverbalironyfromtheperspectiveofpragmatics.First,throughthecomparisonofdifferentkindsofdefinitionsofirony,ageneralideaaboutwhatisironyisestablished.Then,thispaperexaminestheCooperativePrinciple(CPforshort)ofAmericanlinguistGricewhichputforwardsthatironyactsasaviolationofCP.Lastbutnottheleast,withthehelpofthecomparisonofthepragmaticfunctionsofEnglishironyandChineseirony,thehumorfeatureofverbalironycanbewelldisplayed.InEnglish,ironycouldbeusedtostateone’snegativeattitudetosomething.Itcouldbeusedasameanstosatirize,anapproachtopoliteness,anapproachtohumor.Chineseironycanbeclassifiedintofivetypesfromtheperspectiveofpragmaticfunctionsasfollows:ironyforcommendationandderogation,ironyforsatire,ironyforfun,ironyforaffectionandironyforemphasis.Thepragmaticfunctionsofironyinbothlanguagesaresimilar.

[KeyWords]verbalirony;pragmaticfunction;humor;EnglishandChineseironies

【摘要】反语作为一种普遍使用的修辞格，引起了认知心理学家和语言学家的关注。反语研究的角度从传统的修辞学和美学转向了认知心理学和语用学的探究。本文首先从定义和分类上，对反语进行认知层面上的归纳总结。其次，基于语用学角度分析了反语与合作原则和礼貌原则的联系。反语违反合作原则主要体现在对质量准则的违反上。反语作为一种间接言语，成为礼貌的一种手段。反语原则独立于礼貌原则之外，是对礼貌原则的一大补充。此外，反语是言语幽默的一种表现形式。英汉反语的语用功能大致相似，但也存在不少差异。文中对此异同进行归纳总结，从而得知，反语的幽默属性是其基本属性，在其语用功能中也得到了很好的体现。

【关键词】反语；语用功能；幽默；英汉反语

1.Introduction

Ironyisacommonlinguisticphenomenoninverbalcommunication.Recentyearshaveseenamushroomgrowthofdistinctlyangledtheorizationsinthisorientation,whichneverthelessexhibitstrongcomplementarity.Traditionally,ironyistreatedasafigureofspeechwhoseintendedmeaningistheoppositeofthatexpressedbythewordsuttered.Thestudyofironyinthiswaybelongstothatofrhetoric.AmericanlinguistGricetakesironyasoneofthosefiguresofspeechthatfloutstheCooperativePrinciple(CPforshort),especiallytheMaximofQuality.Ironyinterpretedunderthispragmaticmodelconveysthecontradictionofwhatisliterallysaid.LinguistsSperberandWilsontreatironyasanechoicmentionwhilelinguistCuddonstatesthat“Atitssimplest,verbalironyinvolvessayingwhatonedoesn’tmean.”[1]

Inthispaper,focuswillbelaiduponthehumorfeatureofverbalironyfromtheperspectiveofpragmatics.First,throughthecomparisonofdifferentkindsofdefinitionsofirony,ageneralideaaboutwhatisironyisestablished.Secondly,thispaperexaminesGriceanCooperativePrinciplewhichputforwardsthatironyactsasaviolationofCP.Thirdly,withthehelpofLeech’sideaofirony,thepragmaticfunctionofironycouldbebetterdisplayed.Finally,thelastpointisaboutthepragmaticfunctionsofbothEnglishironyandChineseirony.Inaword,ironyisonewaytoproducehumorinverbalcommunication.

2.Whatisirony

Itisdifficulttodefinethewordof“irony”whichcouldbeunderstoodinvariousways.Theexpansionofitsresearchareamaybethedirectcauseofthediversityofthedefinitionofirony.Thefollowingaresomedefinitionsofironyfromdictionaries.

2.1Dictionarydefinitionsofirony

1)Expressionofone’smeaningbysayingthedirectoppositeofone’sthoughtsinordertobeemphatic,amusing,sarcastic,etc.[2]

OxfordAdvancedLearner’sEnglish-ChineseDictionary

2)Useofwordswhichareclearlyoppositetoone’smeaning,usuallyeitherinordertobeamusingortoshowannoyance(e.g.bysaying‘Whatcharmingbehaviour’whensomeonehasbeenrude.)[3]

LongmanDictionaryofEnglishLanguage&Culture(English-Chinese)

3)Ironyisaliterarytechniquethatachievestheeffectofsayingonethingandmeaninganotherthroughtheuseofhumorormildsarcasm.[4]

Webster’sNewWorldEncyclopedia

4)Theuseofwordstoexpresssomethingotherthanandespeciallytheoppositeoftheliteralmeaning.[5]

WebsterEnglishDictionary

5)Ironyisafigureofspeechthatachievesemphasisbysayingtheoppositeofwhatismeant,theintendedmeaningofthewordsbeingtheoppositeoftheirusualsense.Thisformofironyiscalledverbalirony,anddiffersfromthestylisticdeviceofdramaticirony.[6]

EnglishRhetoricalOptions

6)DefinitionofironyfromGrolierInternationalDictionary:

a).Anexpressionorutterancemarkedbysuchadeliberatecontrastbetweenapparentandintendedmeaning,forhumorousorrhetoricaleffect.

b).Incongruitybetweenwhatmightbeexpectedandwhatoccurs.[7]

Theabovedefinitions,althoughexplainedbydifferentexpertsfromdifferentangles,roughlydisplaythenatureofironyfromboththeformandfunction.Amongthesedefinitions,thebasicmeaningofironycouldbefoundas“sayingonethingbutmeaninganother.”Thebestdescriptionofirony,say,theGrolierInternationalDictionary,takesboththeformandfunctionofironyintoconsiderationandgivesusabetterpicture.However,allofthesedefinitionshavesomeshortcomings.First,noneofthemprovidesaneffectivewaytoidentifyironyfromnon-irony.Second,theybasicallyregardironyasatropeorafigureofspeechwhoseliteralandconnotativemeaningsaremutuallyopposedtoeachother.Thistraditionalunderstandinghasbeenunderchallengesbymodernresearch.

2.2Classificationofirony

Theclassificationofironyispresentedindifferentwaysbythosewhoworkonit.Boothidentifiesquiteanumberoftypes:tragicirony,comicirony,stableirony,unstableirony,dramaticirony,situationalirony,verbalirony,rhetoricalironysoonandsoforth.KreuzandRobertsdistinguishfourtypesofirony:Socraticirony,dramaticirony,ironyoffateandverbalirony.[8]

Ingeneral,ironyinvolvesacontradictionbetweenappearanceandreality.Ironyresultswherethereisadifferenceinpointofviewbetweenacharacterandthenarratororreader.Traditionally,therearefourmajortypesofirony:verbal,dramatic,situationalandcomic.

2.2.1Verbalirony

Verbalironyreferstospokenwordsonly.Verbalironyoccurswhenacharactersaysonething,butsuggestsorintendstheopposite.Thecontrastisbetweenwhatthespeakersaysandwhatheactuallymeans.Forexample,inJuliusCaesar,MarkAntonyrepeatsthewords“andBrutusisanhonorableman”inthefamous“Friends,Romans,Countrymen”speech.[9]MarkAntony’smeaning,however,isthatBrutusiscompletelydishonorablebecauseBrutus,Caesar’sbestfriend,joinedtheotherconspiratorsandplungedaknifeintoCaesar’schest.

Inthispaper,thediscussionislaiduponthistypeofirony,verbalirony.

2.2.2Dramaticirony

Dramaticironyinvolvesmorethanjustspokenwords.Dramaticironyoccurswhenthemeaningintendedbyacharacter’swordsoractionsisoppositeofthetruesituation.Thecontrastisbetweenwhatthecharactersays,thinks,ordoesandthetruesituation.Further,thecharactercannotseeorunderstandthecontrast,buttheaudienceorreadercan.Forexample,inOthello,dramaticironyoccurswhenOthelloreferstoIagoas“honestIago”.[10]UnknowntoOthello,IagoisavillainwhodeceiveshimintothinkingthatDesdemona(Othello’swife)hasbeenunfaithful.Forthis,Othellounjustlykillshiswife,believingthewholetimeinIago’shonesty.

Thedifferenceinexamplesforverbalanddramaticirony:AntonycallsBrutus“honorable”andknowsheisnothonorable,whileOthellocallsIago“honest”anddoesnotknowofIago’sdeceit.

2.2.3Situationalirony

Situationalironydefieslogicalcause/effectrelationshipsandjustifiableexpectations.Forexample,ifagreedymillionaireweretobuyalotteryticketandwinadditionalmillions,theironywouldbesituationalbecausesuchacircumstancecannotbeexplainedlogically.Suchacircumstanceseems“unfair”.Thissenseofbeing“unfair”or“unfortunate”isatrademarkofsituationalirony.Becausepeoplecannotexplaintheunfairness,itcausesthemtoquestionwhetherornotthewordmakessense.

2.2.4Comicirony(orIronyoffate)

Someironygoesbeyondbeingunfairandismorallytragic.SuchironyisoftensoseverethatitcausespeopletoquestionGodandseetheuniverseashostile.Forexample,ifanhonest,hardworking,andgenerouspersonbuysalotteryticketandwinstenmilliondollars,onlytodieinanautocrashtwodayslater,theironywouldreachtragicproportions.Whensituationalironyreachesthisscale,itisoftencalledcomicironyorironyoffate.Suchironytypicallysuggeststhatpeoplearepawnstomaliciousforces.

3.IronyandtheCooperativePrinciple

3.1TheCooperativePrinciple

“AmericanphilosopherH.P.Gricemadeanattempttoexplainthecourseofnaturalconversation,inwhichimpliedmessagesarefrequentlyinvolved.Hisideaisthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperativePrinciple,abbreviatedasCP.Itgoesasfollows:

Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.

Theprinciplebreaksdownintoparticularmaximsthatsummarizeparticularassumptionsaboutconversation.DifferentpragamaticistsproposedifferentnumbersofthesemaximsbutasoriginallyproposedbyGrice,thePrinciplecontainedfoursetsofmaxims:

Themaximsofquantity

a).Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange)

b).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.

Themaximsofquality

Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue:

a).Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.

b).Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.

Themaximofrelation

Berelevant.

Themaximsofmanner

Beperspicuous:

a).Avoidobscurityofexpression.

b).Avoidambiguity.

c).Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).

d).Beorderly.”[11]

3.2IronyasviolationofCP

GriceclassifiesironyasanexampleofimplicatureandshowshowonecanaccountforironyasacaseoffloutingtheCooperativePrinciplebyviolatingthemaximofquality.

Examples:

(1)Thisdiligentstudentseldomreadsmorethananhourpermonth.[12]

Theintendedmeaningofthespeakeristhisisalazystudent.However,heusesanoppositeof“lazy”—diligent.Diligentishereusedtoproducesarcasm.

(2)A:Sorry,Mary.Icannotgiveyoualiftafterwork.Ihavetomeetafriendattheairport.

B:Thankyouverymuch.It’sverykindofyou.[13]

Inthisconversation,BdoesnotreallypraiseA.Heuses“It’sverykindofyou.”toshowhisdissatisfactioninfact.

(3)A:Johnsayshetopsusallatfootball.

B:Ilikehischeek.[14]

WhenBsaid,“Ilikehischeek.”,heinfringedthequalitymaximtotellalie.ItiseasilyinferredfromthecontextthatBusestheoppositeword“like”tomeanhistrulydislike.

(4)RoseandDavidmetanelegantwomanonthestreet.Theyappreciatedherfineactionuntilshesuddenlyspittedphlegmtothefloor.Underthissituationcomesthediscourseasfollows:

Rose:Sheisreallylovely,isn’tshe?

David:Shesureis.[15]

Rosetendedtouse“lovely”tolaughattheelegantwoman’spooractionhere.

Theseinstancesareviolationsofthemaximoftruthbysayingsomethinghe/shedoesnotreallybelieve.Intheseironyacts,indirectnessseemslikeashieldwhichmasksagenuineintentconsideredriskybythespeakers.Theironicalutterancesnotonlyconveymessagesbutalsoconcealwhatthespeakersreallybearinmind.ThespeakersviolatetheCooperativePrincipleconsciouslytoexpresstheirrealmeaninginindirectway.Ironyhelpstomaketheutterancemuchmorehumor.

4.IronyandthePolitenessPrinciple

4.1ThePolitenessPrinciple

LeechthinksthatGrice’sCooperativePrincipleinitselfcannotexplainwhypeopleemployindirectnesswhileconveyingwhattheymean.Inaddition,differentsocietiesmayoperatemaximsindifferentways.TheremustbesomeapparentexceptionsinactualcommunicationthatCooperativePrinciplecannotexplain.ThereforeLeechproposestosupplementGrice’sCooperativePrinciplewiththePolitenessPrinciple(PPforshort).Thestrategiesaresummarizedbelow:

Tact:

a).Minimizecosttoother.

b).Maximizebenefittoother.

Generosity:

a).Minimizebenefittoself.

b).Maximizecosttoself.

Approbation:

a).Minimizedispraiseofother.

b).Maximizepraiseofother.

Modesty:

a).Minimizepraiseofself.

b).Maximizedispraiseofself.

Agreement:

a).Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother.

b).Maximizeagreementbetweenselfandother.

Sympathy:

a).Minimizeantipathybetweenselfandother.

b).Maximizesympathybetweenselfandother.[16]

Altogether,themaximsaresaidto“save”theCooperativePrinciple,theyexplainwhathappensinthecasewhenitisbreached.

Example:

Forrest:Ionlycaughtfive.

BoatSalesman:Acouplemoreandyoucanhaveyourselfacocktail.

…[17]

ThisisadialogueinthemovieForrestGump.AlthoughBubbatellsForresteverythingaboutshrimping,butForreststillfindsthatshrimpingistough.Oneday,heonlycatchesfiveaftera-whole-dayhardworking.TheboatsalesmanjustmakesajoketoForrestinordertocheerhimup.Meanwhile,healsotellsForrestafactthatForrestcatchestoolittle.ItisaninstanceofpolitenessaccordingtothePolitenessPrinciple.

4.2TheIronyPrinciple

AccordingtoLeech,ironyisasecond-orderprinciplethatbuildsonorexploitsthePolitenessPrinciple.TheIronyPrinciple(IPforshort)maybestatedinageneralformasfollows:

“Ifyoumustcauseoffence,atleastdosoinawaywhichdoesn’tovertlyconflictwiththePolitenessPrinciple,butallowsthehearertoarriveattheoffensivepointofyourremarkindirectly,bywayofimplicature.”[18]

IronycanhappenifthespeakerovervaluesthePolitenessPrinciplebyblatantlybreakingamaximoftheCooperativePrincipleinordertoupholdthePolitenessPrinciple.Forexample:

A:Geoffhasjustborrowedyourcar.

B:Well,IlikeTHAT![19]

AccordingtotheIronyPrinciple,wecaninterpretthisironicalutterancethisway:whatBsaysispolitetoGeoffandisclearlynottrue.ThereforewhatBreallymeansisimpolitetoGeoffandtrue.LeechbelievesthattheIPcanmakeaspeakerimpolitewhileseemingtobepolite.Inbeingpolite,aspeakerisoftenfacedwithaclashbetweentheCPandthePP.Thespeakerhastochoosehowfarto“trade-off”theCPagainstthePP.Inbeingironic,aspeakerexploitsthePPinordertouphold,ataremotelevel,theCP.

TheIronyPrincipleservesthepurposeofavoidingdirectcriticismthrough‘beingantisocial’,beinginsincerelypolite.ThisprincipleexplainswhysomeoftheGriceanmaximsarebreached.[20]

5.Ironyandverbalhumor

5.1VerbalHumor

Fromthesurfacemeaningofthephrase“verbalhumor”,wecaneasilygetitsmeaning:verbalhumoristhehumorthatisorganizedthroughverbalform.Verbalhumoristhehumorthatiscreatedorexpressedthroughlanguagewiththeassistanceofsituationalcontextoccasionally.

Verbalhumorcanbeproducedbykindsoffigureofspeech,say,personification,exaggeration,ironyandsoon.

5.2Verbalironyasanapproachtoverbalhumor

Verbalironyreferstospokenwordsonly.Itoccurswhenacharactersaysonething,butsuggestsorintendstheopposite.Itisanapproachtohumor.Asanexpressionofwisdom,ironyisfrequentlyusedbythegreatminds,say,writersorphilosophers.

Example:BernardShaw’sAnxiety

TheexceedinglyfascinatingandcharmingAmericanwomandancerDuncanoncegotoffacrack（说俏皮话）toBernardShaw:“Sir,givenIamincombinationwith（与……结合）you,andthatwehaveachildwhohasbothmylooksandyourwisdomandability.Itshouldbecrackerjack（杰出的）.”Thecommonplace-looking（相貌平平）,IrishwriterBernardShawcrackedback（回嘴）:“Incasethechildonlyhasmylooksbutyourwisdomandability,thatwouldbecrack-brained（发疯的）.”[21]

Inthisstory,BernardShaw’sAnxiety,whatBernardShawsaidisaccordingtothesentenceofthewomandancerDuncan.Sotheysharedtheunderstandingincommonandthehumorwasineffect.

Example:HatandHead

HansChristianAndersen,aDanishnurserytalewriter,wasborninahumblefamily.Heoftenworeatornhateveninthewinter.Aplayboylookeddownupon（看不起）himandsaidunconscionably（肆无忌惮）:“Whattheshabby（寒酸的）thingonyourhead?Isthatstilledcalledahat?”Nottobeoutdone（胜过）,Andersencountered（对抗）thatchapinreply:“Whattheshabbythingbeneathyourhat?Isthatstillcalledahead?”[22]

HereAndersenchangedtheorderofthetwowords,“hat”and“head”,whichhelpedhimtocrackback.Humorresulted.

Example:AGreatMan

EinsteinoncewrotealettertoCharlieChaplin.Hesaid:“Yourfilm‘TheModernTime’,everybodyintheworldcanunderstand.Youwillcertainlybecomeagreatman.Einstein.”

InhisanswertotheletterCharlieChaplinwrote:“Iadmireyouevenmore.YourTheoryofRelativitynobodyintheworldunderstands,butyouhavealreadybecomeagreatman.Chaplin.”[23]

Inthisstory,CharlieChaplinwasclevertolendironytoamuseandescapefrombeingoutdone.

Fromtheaboveexamples,theconclusioncanbeeasilyreachedasironyisfrequentlyusedtoproducehumor.Inotherwords,thehumorfeatureofironycouldbeeasilyfoundinhumorstories.

6.Pragmaticfunctionsofirony

Intheformerpartsofthispaper,wehavealreadydiscussedabouttherelationbetweenironyandCP,theassociationbetweenironyandIP,andtheconnectionbetweenironyandverbalhumor.ThoughironyseemstotakefloutingCPasitsownduty,itactsasanassistantofIPactively.Asatypeofverbalhumor,ironydevotesitselftoproducehumorinpeople’scommunications.However,whatarethepragmaticfunctionsofirony?Inthissection,thekeytothisquestionwillbepresentedmainlyfromtwomajoraspects:pragmaticfunctionsofEnglishironyandpragmaticfunctionsofChineseirony.

6.1PragmaticfunctionsofEnglishirony

PragmaticfunctionsofEnglishironycanbestatedinvariousways,similartotheclassificationofit.Inthefollowingpassage,theeffortwillbeconcentratedonthemajorfunctionsofirony.Firstly,whileusingironypeopletendtouseaffirmativetoexpresscritiqueordiscontent.Secondly,ironyisalwaysusedasameanstosatirize.Thirdly,ironyisusedasanapproachtobepolite.Lastbutnottheleast,ironyisusedasanapproachtobehumorous.

6.1.1Usedasanaffirmativetoexpresscritiqueordiscontent

InEnglish,ironyisoftenusedtostateone’snegativeattitudetosomething.Forexample:

(1)Ijustadoremosquitoes.[24]

(2)Youareabighelp![25]

(3)Youaretellingstories![26]

Inexample(1),“adore”actuallytellsusthedispleasureofthespeaker.Itcanbelearnedfromthemeaningbetweenthelinesthatthespeakerhatesmosquitoesinfact.Thesentenceofexample(2)isnotreallyusedtopraisethe“help”buttoindicate,“Youonlydonothingtohelp.”Thespeakerofexample(3)appliesironytomakeamockery.

Ineverydaylife,peopletendtouseironyintheirspeechthoughsometimestheymaynotbeconsciousofit.Thefollowingisanotherinstance:

(4)Thismorning,Iwaslateforwork;atnoon,Ihadmybikestolen;onthewayhomethisafternoon,Islippeddowninthestreet.Sotoday,Iamcertainlyenjoyingmyself.[27]

Obviously,thenarratordidnotenjoyhimselfindeedthisday.Withthestrongdiscontentoftheterribleexperience,heexpressedhisdispleasurebyusingtheoppositeword“enjoy”.

6.1.2Usedasameanstosatirize

Ironyisusedtoveilfeelingsinasubtleway.Wordsofpraiseareoftenfoundwherecondemnationismeant.Belowaresomeexamples:

(1)LikealltheotherofficersatGroupHeadquartersexceptMajorDanby,ColonelCathcartwasinfusedwiththedemocraticspirit:hebelievedthatallmenoutsideGroupequal,andhethereforespurnedallmenoutsideGroupHeadquarterswithequalfervour.(JosephHeller:Catch22)[28]

(ThispassageimpliesthatColonelCathcartwasnotdemocraticatall:hisdemocraticspiritextendedonlytohisowngroup;allothershetreatedwithscornandhighhandedness.)

(2)…ayounghealthychildwellnursedisatayearoldamostdelicious,nourishing,andwholesomefood,whetherstewed,roasted,bakedorboiled;andImakenodoubtthatitwillequallyserveinafricasseeoraragout.[29]

Theauthorhereproposedthemeasuretosolvetheproblemofstarvationandoverpopulationbyeatingorsellingchildrenfrompoorfamilies.However,hisrealpurposewastoripoffthehypocriticalmaskofhypocrites.Usedasameanstosatirize,ironyhelpedtodisclosetheseriousproblemofthesocietyinaboveexample.

6.1.3Usedasanapproachtobepolite

Indailyconversation,peopleareapttobepolite.Asanindirectexpression,ironyiswidelyapplied.Forexample:

(1)“Haveadrink?”

“Allright,butnotupatthebar.Wewilltakeatable.”

“Theperfectfather.”

(F.S.FitzgeraldBabylonRevisited)[30]

(2)“Theboyhasbrokenanotherglass,”saidthemother.

“Afinething!”thefatherreplied.[31]

Inexample(1),thesonchosethepolitewayofusing“theperfectfather”whichactuallyreferredtoonewhowasstingyaboutmoneymatter.Ifhecomplaineddirectlytohisfatherthat“Astingyfather”,theimpolitenesswouldbreaktherelationshipbetweenthefatherandsonmoreorless.Conversely,thefatherinexample(2)criticizedthefaultofhissoninanindirectway.“Afinething!”couldbetreatedasacriticismoutofgoodwill.

6.1.4Usedasanapproachtobehumorous

InSection5.2ofthispaper,wehavelearnedthatverbalironyservesasanapproachofverbalhumor.Therefore,thehumorousfunctionofironycanbeeasilyrevealed.Belowaresomemoreexamplesforfurtheracknowledging.

(1)Politehorse

TheBachseesBallwalkinglamely,askshim:“What’shappened?”Ballsays:“IwenttotheforestparktoridethehorseonSunday.”“I’msurethatitwasanunruly（难驾驭的），orthehorsedidnotallowtoride?”“Botharenot.Justthehorsewasverypolite---whenitrantoastockade（栅栏）atafullgallop,itstoppedallofasuddenandmademeleapoverfirst.”SaysBall.[32]

(2)TakeninTwice

“What’sthematterwithyourhands?”

“Theywerebittenbytheserpent（大蛇）.”

“Howcanithappen?”

“Iwenttotheforestthedaybeforeyesterday.Seeingthereisasnakearoundthetree,Ipickedupasticktobeat.”

“Missedthetarget.”

“No,whatistwisted（缠绕）aroundthetreewasarope,whilewhatIpickedupwasjustasnake.”[33]

Anewconceptionofwhatapolitehorseisshowsforthinexample(1).HumoroccurredwhenBallunderstatedhisdispleasingexperiencebyusingirony.Similarly,theembarrassmentofthenarratorinexample(2)iswellveiledintheironicstatement,whichbringshumortogoodeffect.

6.2PragmaticfunctionsofChineseirony

6.2.1Chineseirony

Chineseirony,tosomeextent,isequaltothetypeofEnglishirony,namelyverbalirony.Generallyspeaking,itcanbeclassifiedasfivetypes:ironyforcommendationandderogation（褒贬反语），ironyforsatire(讽刺反语)，ironyforfun（趣味反语）,ironyforaffection（亲热反语）andironyforemphasis（强调反语）.[34]Theclassificationisbasicallyinthelightofthepragmaticfunctionsofirony.Thedetaileddemonstrationofthemwillbecontinuedinthefollowingparts.

6.2.2PragmaticfunctionsofChineseirony

(i)Ironyforpraiseanddenigration

Ironyforpraiseanddenigrationistousepraiseinsteadofderogatoryterm,orviceversa.Itisanindirectutterancethatcanavoidmakingcommentsindirectway.Ithasnothingtodowithsarcasm.Forinstance:

凤姐道：“我那里管得这些事来？见识又浅，口角又笨，心肠又直率，人家给个棒槌我就认作针，脸皮又软，搁不住人家两句好话，心里就慈悲了。……”

(“I’mincapabableofrunningthings,”shesigned.“I’mtooignorant,bluntandtactless,alwaysgettingholdofthewrongendofthestick.AndI’msosoft-hearted,anyonecangetroundme….”)[35]

Apparently,WangXi-fengdowngradedherselfas“ignorant,bluntandtactless”.However,herpersonalityiswellknownastalent,quick-tonguedandwise.Itcanbeconsideredthatironyisusedtobemodestinthissituation.

(ii)Ironyforsatire

Satireplaysaroleoffrequentfeatureofirony.Itseemslikeaspoiledchildtosomeliteraturewriters.Forexample:

(1)几个“慈祥”的老板到菜场去收集一些菜叶，用盐一浸，这就是他们难得的佳肴。

(Somekind-heartedbossesgotothemarketandpickupsomevegetableleaves,comingbackanddippingthemintosaltwater,thenagod-givencateisreadyforthem(thewomenworkers))[36]

(2)湘云笑道：“‘主雅客来勤’，自然你有些警动他的好处，他才要会你。”宝玉道：“罢，罢！我也不称雅，我乃俗中又俗的一个俗人，并不愿同这些人来往。”

(“‘Whenthehostiscultured,guestsfrequenthishouse’,”quotedHsiang-yun.“Helikesseeingyou,surely,becausehecanlearnsomethingfromyou.”

“Don’tcallmecultured,”beggedPao-yu.“I’mthemostvulgarofthevulgarherd,andI’venodesireatalltomixwithsuchpeople.”)[37]

Inexample(1),theauthorlent“kind-hearted”toridiculethebosseswhotreatedthewomenworkersniggardly.Inexample(2),Pao-yulaughedathimselfas“themostvulgarofthevulgarherd”,ironically.

(iii)Ironyforfun

Ironyforfunreferstotheonethatmaycreatearelaxedatmosphere.Forexample:

这个“四十条”去年以来不吃香了，现在又“复辟”了。

(Thesefortyarticleswentoutofvoguelastyearbutarenowstaginga“comeback”.)[38]

Literally,“comeback”isanexpressionofcensure.Buthereitstandsforanewstartingofthefortyarticles.Byusingthisword,thespeechrunsmoothlyunderthelightair.

(iv)Ironyforaffection

Ironyissometimesusedtoexpressstrongaffection.Tomakeadvancestoothers,peoplecanuseironyasasupport.Forexample:

几个女人有点失望，也有些伤心，各人在心里骂着自己的狠心贼。

(Disappointedandratherupset,eachwomanwassecretlylayingtheblameonherheartlessbruteofahusband.)[39]

Seemingly,thesewomenwereblamingtheirhusbands.Actually,thatisnotthecase.Theylovedtheirhusbandssomuchthatironywasusedtomanifesttheirrealaffectionindirectlybytheauthor.

(v)Ironyforemphasis

Ironycanbeapprovedinthefollowingexamplethatitcanemphasizetheoppositemeaning.

Example:

我于是日日盼望新年，新年到，闰土也就到了。好容易到了年末，有一日，母亲告诉我，闰土来了，我便飞跑的去看。

（IlookedforwardeverydaytoNewYear,forNewYearwouldbringRuntu.Atlasttheendoftheyearcame,andonedayMothertoldmethatRuntuhadcome,andIflewtoseehim.）[40]

Here“好容易”canbeeasilyunderstoodasitsrealmeaning“好不容易”.PeoplecancatchitsmeaningasthisisancommonexpressioninChinese,say,“好不高兴”means“好高兴”，andsoon.

6.3ThecomparisonbetweenEnglishironyandChineseirony

TherearebothsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenEnglishironyandChineseirony.Thesimilaritieslieinsomeaspects.Theyarebothusedforsatirizing,amusingandproducinghumor.Itseemsthatthedifferencescountmuchmorethanthesimilarities.

ThedifferencesbetweenEnglishironyandChineseironymainlylieinfourpointsasfollows.Firstly,theclassificationofEnglishironydiffersfromthatofChineseirony.ThefourmajortypesofironyinEnglishareverbal,dramatic,situationalandcomic.Tosomeextent,ChineseironyisincludedinEnglishironyasverbalirony.Secondly,EnglishironydependsoncontexttoalargerextentwhileChineseironysimplycountsonwords.Besides,ironyforaffectionturnsouttoappearmorefrequentlyinChineseironythaninEnglish.Lastbutnottheleast,ironyforemphasiscanberegardedasauniquefeatureofChineseironysinceitcouldnotbefoundinEnglish.

7.Conclusion

Asstated,thepragmaticfunctionsofEnglishironyareasfollows:usedasameanstoexpresscritiqueordiscontent,usedasameanstosatirize,usedasanapproachtobepolite,usedasanapproachtobehumorous.Meanwhile,thepragmaticfunctionsofChineseironyarepresentedas:ironyforpraiseanddenigration,ironyforsatire,ironyforfun,ironyforaffectionandironyforemphasis.

Fromtheabovediscussioninthispaper,wecancometoaconclusionthatthemajorpragmaticfunctionsofironycouldbestatedashumorousfunctions.Inabroadsense,thehumorousfunctionsmayberegardedaslighthumorousfunctionsandheavyhumorousfunctions.Thefunctiontobehumorouscouldbeconsideredasonebreachofthehumorousfunctions.Thelighthumorousfunctionsincludethefunctiontobepolite,thefunctiontobehumorous,ironyforfun,etc.Ontheotherhand,thefunctionforsatireservesasaheavyhumorousfunction.Tosumup,themainfeatureofironyishumorfeature.

References

[1]方伟琴.反语的语用和认知研究[硕士学位论文][D].苏州大学，中国优秀博硕士学位论文全文数据库，2005，p3

[2]牛津高阶英汉双解词典（第四版增补本）[Z].北京：商务印书馆，牛津大学出版社，1997，p793

[3]朗文当代英语大辞典(英英·英汉双解)[Z].北京：商务印书馆，2004，p919

[4]陈海叶.反语及其识别与理解[硕士学位论文][D].上海外国语大学，中国优秀博硕士学位论文全文数据库，2005，p8

[5]同[4]，p8

[6]冯翠华.英语修辞大全[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1995，12，p213

[7]同[4]，p9

[8]同[4]，p14

[9]同[6]，p215

[10]威廉·莎士比亚著，李献民译.莎士比亚八大名剧（上）[M].内蒙古：内蒙古人民出版社，2003，p448

[11]戴炜栋，何兆熊主编.新编简明英语语言学教程[Z].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2002，7，p92

[12]同[4]，p25

[13]托娅，赵伊娜.论违反会话合作原则的修辞格及其语用功能[J].中国海洋大学学报（社会科学版），2003，4，p60

[14]李旭清.合作原则的违反及语用推理[J].龙岩师专学报，2004，2，p93

[15]姚俊.论反语理解的认知机制及其语用效力[J].四川外语学院学报，2003，9，p96

[16]Jaszczolt,K.M..语义学与语用学：语言与话语中的意义[M].北京：北京大学出版社，2004，9，p315

[17]TengFengwu.浅析电影《阿甘正传》对话中的幽默[EB/OL]./Html/movies/gump/095539721_3.html，2005，p1

[18]同[1]，p10

[19]同[18]，p10

[20]同[16]，p316

[21]艾临译著.每天幽它一默[M].南京：华龄出版社，2005，p24

[22]同[21]，p104

[23]青闰，张玲，听泉编译.英语幽默笑话集锦（上）[Z].青岛：青岛出版社，2005，1，p178

[24]郑国龙.英汉反语语用功能对比[J].连云港师范高等专科学校学报，2003，6，p28

[25]邱政政.托福听力之“修辞艺术”——调色“话”板的点睛笔（中篇）[EB/OL].www.china-/2003/5-13/214.htm，2005，p2

[26]同[25]，p2

[27]同[24]，p28

[28]同[6]，p214

[29]同[27]，p28

[30]薛利芳.英语Irony和汉语反语的比较与翻译[J].山西农业大学学报（社会科学版），2004，3，p65

[31]冯庆华编著.实用翻译教程（增订本）[Z].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2002，5，p160

[32]同[21]，p170

[33]同[32]，p222

[34]李定坤编著.汉英辞格对比与翻译[Z].武汉：华中师范大学出版社，1994，11，p286

[35]同[34]，p286

[36]同[4]，p15

[37]同[34]，p290

[38]同[34]，p292

[39]中国文学出版社编.中国文学：现代小说卷[Z].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，中国文学出版社，1998，11，p464

[40]同[39]，p34