英语委婉语分类与构成方式研究论文

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[Abstract]AsanindispensableandnaturalpartofEnglishlanguage,Englisheuphemismshaveexistedforalongtime.Theappearanceofeverything,includingeuphemism,hasitsreasons.TheemergenceofEnglisheuphemismshasacloserelationwithlanguagetaboosandreligion.SinceEnglisheuphemismsplayanimportantroleinsocialcommunication,theyworthcarefulandthoroughstudy.Thispaperwillmainlydealwiththeformation,classificationandsocialfunctionofEnglisheuphemisms.

VariousmethodshavebeenusedtoformEnglisheuphemisms,includingphoneticdevices,spellingdevices,vocabularydevices,grammaticaldevicesandrhetoricaldevices.

ThepaperalsotriestoclassifyEnglisheuphemismsaccordingtothecontent.Englisheuphemismsarealmostemployedinallfieldsoflifesuchasinthefieldofdailylife,inthefieldofeducation,inthefieldoflaw,inthefieldofpolitics,andinthefieldofcommerceandindustry.

Fromthedaytheycameintobeing,Englisheuphemismsplaytheroleofsociallubricator.Withoutthem,theworldwillbefullofconflictsandthesocialorderwillbeinchaos.ThefunctionofEnglisheuphemismsisdiversified.Besidesevasion,Englisheuphemismsnowarealsousedforpoliteness,eleganceanddisguise.

[KeyWords]Englisheuphemism;formation;classification;socialfunction

【摘要】委婉语是人类语言中的一种普遍现象，其存在的历史相当悠久。任何事物的出现总有其原因，委婉语当然也不例外。委婉语的出现是与语言禁忌息息相关的。英语委婉语在交际中起着十分重要的作用，因此值得深入的学习和研究。本文主要从英语委婉语的构成方式、分类和社会功能来进行阐述。英语委婉语的构成方式多种多样包括语音手段、语法手段、修辞手段等。论文还试图根据英语委婉语的内容对其应用范围进行归类。英语委婉语涉及生活的方方面面，既有日常生活中的委婉语又有教育和法律委婉语以及政治委婉语与商业和工业领域委婉语。从其诞生之日起，英语委婉语就肩负着社会润滑剂这项重任。可以预见如果没有委婉语人际交往中将会增加许多摩擦和矛盾。英语委婉语具有多样化的功能。除了避讳，它还具有礼貌、求雅、掩饰等功能。

【关键字】英语委婉语;构成方式;分类;社会功能

1.Introduction

Euphemismshaveexistedforalongtime.Theword“euphemism”comesfromtheGreekword“Euphemia”.Theprefix“eu-”means“good”,thestem“pheme”means“speech”or“saying”.Manypeoplehavedefinedeuphemism.Herearesomeofthedefinitions.

(1)“(exampleofthe)useofpleasant,mildorindirectwordsorphasesinplaceofmoreaccurateordirectones.”[1]

(2)“apolitewordorexpressionthatyouuseinsteadofamoredirectonetoavoidshockingorupsettingsomeone.”[2]

(3)“alessdirectwordusedinsteadofonethatisharshorbluntwhenreferringtosomethingunpleasantorembarrassing.”[3]

(4)“Substitutionofmildorvagueorroundaboutexpressionforharshordirectone;Expressionthussubstituted.”[4]

(5)“apolitewordorexpressionthatpeopleusetotalkaboutsomethingunpleasantorembarrassing,suchasdeathandsex.”[5]

(6)“Aeuphemismisusedasanalternativetoadispreferredexpression,inordertoavoidpossiblelossofface:Eitherone’sownfaceor,throughgivingoffence,thatoftheaudience,orofsomethirdparty.”[6]

Justastheabovedefinitionsstate,someharsh,blunt,unpleasantoroffensivethingsinlifeshouldnotbestateddirectlyandtruthfullyincertainoccasions.Underthesecircumstances,somebetter-soundingnamesshouldbeused.Euphemismisapartofhumanlanguageaswellasapsychologicalandculturalphenomenonofdifferentnations.TheusageofEnglisheuphemismreflectsethicsandbehavioralcodeofpeopleinEnglish-speakingcountries.Fromthedayitcameintobeing,euphemismfunctionsasthelubricatorofcommunication.Thusitenablespeopletoliveinharmonyandmakesconversationssmoothandsuccessful.

Thefollowingpartsholdadiscussionontheorigin,formation,classificationandsocialfunctionofEnglisheuphemisms.

2.TheoriginofEnglisheuphemisms

“Euphemismisthelinguisticreflectionofsocialpsychologyandaproductofsocialandculturalenvironment.”[7]“Inwesternnations,theusageofeuphemismsinearlytimesoriginatedfromreligionoradmiresanddreadofgods.”[8]Itsearlieremergencehadacloserelationtolanguagetaboosandreligion.

Inancientsociety,asthelevelofproductivityandsciencewasverylow,peoplefailedtoexplaintheessenceofsomenaturalphenomenasuchaslighteningandthunder.Theycametobelievethatthereweresomesupernaturalpowers,ortheexistenceofdevilsandgodsthatcontrolledtheirlivesandeventhewholeworld.Theydarednottomentionthenamesofthedevilsandgodsdirectly,justastheidiomgoes“Speakofthedevilandheappears.”Thus,languagetabooscameintobeing.Tofindasolutiontothisproblem,peopleusedothernamesthatis,euphemismstosubstitutethenamesofthosethingstheyfearedincircumstancesthattheyhadtospeakofthem.Becauseoftheusageofeuphemisms,peoplefeltthattheyweresomewhatdistantfromwhattheywereafraidofandtheirsafety,happiness,healthandgoodluckwereguaranteed.Thoughitisaratheroldreligiouscustom,itstillexertsastronginfluenceonmodernwesternnations.

Asweallknow,themajorityofthepopulationofEnglish-speakingcountriesbelievesinGodconsciouslyorunconsciously,andtheythinkthatGodexistseverywhereandhasunlimitedpower.WordsrelatedtoGodandreligioncanonlybeusedinreligiousceremonies.SincethenameofGodisregardedastheavatarofGoditself,peopleusuallyuse“theLord”toreplaceit.Besides,Jesusiseuphemizedas“Gee”,“jeepers”,“jiminy”,“Cricket”or“Criminet”;and“thedeuce”,“thedickens”or“OldNick”substitutes“theDevil”.

3.TheformationofEnglisheuphemisms

VariousdevicesareemployedtoformEnglisheuphemisms.

3.1Phoneticdevices

PhoneticdistortionisacommonmeanstoformEnglisheuphemism.Forexample,Peopleuse“Gad”,“Goodness”,“Gosh”,and“Golly”toreplace“God”anduse“cripes”toreplace“Christ”inordertoshowrespect.Assonanceisanotherimportantmeanstoformeuphemisms.Forexample,“‘acoffinshop’iseuphemizedas‘acoffeeshop’,for‘coffin’and‘coffee’havesimilarityinsound.”[9]RhymingslangisalsoemployedtoformEnglisheuphemisms.Slangisveryinformalandhaslocalcolor.Itwasoriginallyusedbyworkingpeople.Now,someslangwordshavebeenacceptedinStandardEnglishandusedaseuphemisms.Forexample,“Bristolcities”isfor“breasts”;“graspandgrunt”isrhymingslangfor“cunt”and“tealeaf”isfor“thief”.

3.2Spellingdevices

3.2.1Abbreviations

Someeuphemismsareabbreviations.Forexample,“VD”isfor“venerealdisease”;“BO”isfor“bodyodor”;“BM”substitutes“bowelmovement”;“WC”substitutes“watercloset”;“OD”replaces“totakeanoverdose”,etc.

3.2.2Reinterpretationofinitials

ReinterpretationofinitialsisalsousedtoformEnglisheuphemisms.Forexample,“hotandcold”isaroundaboutexpressionfor“heroinandcocaine”.“hot”and“heroin”havethesameinitial“h”and“cold”and“cocaine”havethesameinitial“c”,but“hotandcold”soundslessaccurateandindirect.

3.3vocabularydevices

3.3.1Loanwords

Borrowingistheuseofloanwordsinordertoavoidtaboos.“Itisthoughtthatloanwordshavefewnegativemeaningandsensitiveassociations,sothattheysoundmoreneutralandpleasant.”[10]

Hereisalistofdirectexpressionsandtheirrespectiveeuphemisms.

“EnglishFrenchLatin

smellscent

stinkodor

fatrotund

sick/illindisposed

lieprevaricate

spitexpectorate

sweatperspire”[11]

Asweallknow,in43A.D.RomanEmpireconqueredEnglandandbroughtLatintoEnglandandLatinbecameofficiallanguageinEngland.AftertheNormanConquestin1066,FrenchbecamethegovernmentallanguageinEngland.ButFrenchandLatinwereonlyspokenbytheupperclasses,andamongthelowclassesEnglishwasspoken.Theupperclassesheldtheviewthatwordsusedbythemselvesweresuperiortothoseusedbythelowclasses.SotheyusedFrenchorLatinwordstoreplaceunpleasantEnglishwords.LaterpeopleacceptedtheviewthatFrenchandLatinwordsaremoreeuphemisticthanEnglishwords.

3.3.2Usingupliftingwords

UpliftingwordscanmakeonefeelhappierormorehopefulsotheyareusedquitefrequentlyinmodernEnglishasanimportantmeanstoeuphemizethingsrelatedtothehumblesocialclass.Themainpurposeofusingtheseeuphemismsistomakemenialjobssounddecent.Forexample,peoplereplace“waiters”or“waitresses”by“thediningroomattendants”,“landscapeworker”by“landscapearchitect”,“garbageman”by“sanitaryengineer”,andsubstitute“butcher”with“meattechnologist”.Generallyspeaking,informingeuphemismtheruleofusingwordsthatareeasyontheearsisobservedforthepurposeofconsolation.Throughusingupliftingwords,theembarrassingfactsareembellishedandnolongerunpleasant.

33.3Usingvaguewordsorexpressions

Inmodernwesterncountries,vaguewordsorexpressionsareusedinalmostallthefields.“Ifaneighboringgirlhasachildbeforemarriage,peoplewillcommentlikethis:‘Shehasanaccident.’Theword‘accident’isveryvague.Ifapersoncameacrossadisasteranddied,peoplewillalsouse‘accident’todescribehissituation.Theymaysay:‘Hehasmetwithanaccident.’”[12]Inschoolastudentmaysaytoateacher:“Sorry!Ihavetodomybusiness”whenhewantstogotothewashingroom.Besides,“amanofbadtaste”iscalled“amanofdoubtfultaste”;and“homosexual”isreplacedby“queer”.“Itisnowonderthateuphemismisnamedweaselwords.”[13]

3.3.4Usingcountrynames

Namesofsomecountriesareusedtosubstituteuncomfortablethings.Forexample,“Dutchcourage”replaces“weakcourage”,thatis,couragethatcomesfromdrinkingalcohol;and“Dutchuncle”isfor“unpleasantrelative”.WeallknowthattherewasawarbetweenBritainandDutchin17thcentury.Fromthenon,hatredexistedamongpeopleinthesetwonations.AndEnglishmenusedeverychancetomakejokeofDutch.BesidesDutch,Franceisalsousedtoformeuphemismslike“Frenchnovels”for“pornnovels”and“Frenchletters”for“condom”.Andpeopleuse“Frenchdevices/methods”orsimply“Frenchise”toreplacemethodsofbirthcontrol.PeopleinBritainbanterFrenchbecausetheywereonceruledbyit.

3.4Grammaticaldevices

Moreandmorelinguistsbecometonoticeeuphemismsformedthroughgrammaticaldevices.Sucheuphemismsareusedbyspeakerswithacertainpurpose.Onlythroughthecontext,canlistenersfigureoutspeakers’specialintention.

3.4.1Usingthepasttense

InwrittenEnglishthepasttenseismostlyusedtoexpressanactionorafacthappenedinacertainpointoftimeinthepast.ButinoralEnglish,thepasttensecanreplacethepresenttensetomakethemeaningofthesentencessoundsmorepoliteandmild.

(1)Doyouwantmetohelpyou?

(2)Didyouwantmetohelpyou?

(3)Iwonderifyoucandomeafavor.

(4)Iwonderedifyoucoulddomeafavor.

Sentences(1)and(3)usethepresenttenseandsentences(2)and(4)usethepasttense,andtheyareallgrammaticallyright.Butsentences(2)and(4)soundmorepleasant,fortheymeanthatwhatthespeakerssayhappenedinthepast,sothelistenerswillnotfeelembarrassediftheyhavedifferentanswersfromthespeakers’atthetimebeing.

(5)Wouldn’titbebetterforustostartoffalittleearliertomorrow?

(6)ThisissomethingIshouldadviseyounottodo.

Byusingthepasttenseofmodelauxiliaryverbs,theabovesentencesputforwardapoliteproposalinsteadofaharshone.

3.4.2Usingthesubjunctivemood

ThesubjunctivemoodinEnglishismainlyusedtoexpressdoubt,wishes,orpossibility.WhenusedinspokenEnglish,onecanachieveabettercommunicationeffectthanwithindicativemoodorimperativemood.Herearesomeexamples:

(7)IfIwereyou,Iwouldnotgothere.

(8)Ifhebefoundguilty,hismembershipwouldbesuspended.

(9)Itisessentialthatherecognizehisfault.

3.4.3Usingthepassivevoice

InEnglish,thepassivevoiceisusedtoavoidmentioningthedoer,especiallywhenexpressingcriticism.Herearetwoexamples:

(10)Itisgenerallyconsiderednotacceptabletoactthatway.

(11)Thisbookwasnotwellwritten.

Insentence(10),thepassivevoiceistactfullyusednottoindicatewhoactsthatway.Insentence(11),thespeakerdoesnotmentionwhoisthewriterinordernottohurtthepersonconcerned.

3.4.4Usingparentheses

Parenthesesarealsousedtoformeuphemisms.Andaparenthesiscanbeaword,aphraseorasentence,suchas,“Ithink”,“Iguess”,“I’mafraid”,“Isuppose”,“Iwonder”,“itseems”,and“itissaid”.Theyareusedtomakeastatementlessdirectorlessstrong.Herearesomeexamples:

(12)Theman,itseems,istheonewholivesnextdoortoTim.

(13)This,Ithink,isaverygoodwaytoimproveyourEnglishstudy.

With“itseems”and“Ithink”thetwosentencessoundmoremodestandlessrighteous.

3.4.5Using“please”

Outofkindnessandpoliteness,theword“please”isusedasaeuphemisticdevice.Examples:

(14)Nophotos,please.

(15)Closethedoor,please.

(16)Children,please!Iamtryingtowork.

Insentence(14),“please”isemployedonasigntosaythatsomethingisnotallowedpolitely.Sentence(15)uses“please”asapolitewayofaskingsomebodytodosomething.Sentence(16)employs“please”asamildcriticism,toasksomebodytostopbehavingbadly.

3.4.6Usingtagquestions

Aphrasesuchas“isn’tit?”,“won’tit”,or“doesn’tshe”isaddedtotheendofasentencetomakeitaquestionortoaskyoutoagreewiththeabovestatementpolitely.Examples:

(17)Let’sgofishingthisafternoon,shallwe?

(18)Turnonthelightforme,willyou?

3.5Rhetoricaldevices

Someeuphemismsareinventedbyrhetoricalmeansasfollows.

3.5.1Usingmetaphor

InEnglish,manyeuphemismsthemselvesarevividandpopularmetaphors,soitisnecessarytofindoutwhat“metaphor”means.Ametaphoremploysawordoraphrasetoindicatesomethingdifferentfromtheliteralmeaning.Peopleseldomsay“hedied”but“hewenttosleepforever”or“hewenttohislonghome”.Here,“gotosleepforever”and“gotoone’slonghome”arebothmetaphorsandeuphemisms.Moreexamplesare:

(19)HeisHamlet.

(20)Hisplaniscastleintheair.

(21)JohniscarryingcoalstoNewcastle.

Sentence(19)means“heisindecisive”,sentence(20)means“hisplanisdaydream”,andsentence(21)hasthesamemeaningwith“Johniswastingtimeandenergy”.Euphemismscreatedbythiswayalsoappearinliteraryworks.Hereisanexample:

(22)“thereforeitisbettertobeaguestofthelaw,whichthoughconductedbyrules,doesnotinterferetoowithagentleman’sprivateaffairs.”[14]

Insentence(22),“tobeaguestofthelaw”meansto“beinprison”,buttheformerisapleasantsubstitution.Soapywouldratherspendhiswintersinprisonthangetsomehelpfromcharityorganizations,forifhewantstogethelpfromcharities,hisprivateaffairswillbeinterfered.

3.5.2Usingunderstatement

Forthesakeofpolitenessandpleasantness,peopleoftenuseanotherformationcalledunderstatement,which,isnottostatesomethingfullyoradequately.Understatement,asthewordsuggests,is“astatementthatisnotstrongenoughtoexpresshowgood,bad,impressiveetcsomethingreallyis.”[15]“Understatementachievesitseffectofemphasizingafactbydeliberatelyunderstatingit.”[16]

“Understatementisusuallydividedintolitotesandmeiosis.Litotesisunderstatementbyusinganegativestatementinsteadofapositiveone”[17].Examples:

(23)Sheisveryugly.---Sheisnotparticularlygood-looking.

(24)Hewasquiterich.---Hewasamanofnomeanwealth.

Insentence(23),“notparticularlygood-looking”ismoreneutralandvaguethan“ugly”,sotheemploymentofthiseuphemismsuccessfullyavoidsannoyingthepersonconcerned.Sentence(24)hassomethingtodowithpersonalaffairs.Westernersdon’tlikeotherstotalkabouttheirprivateaffairs.Wealthbelongstoone’sprivacy,soitismorepolitetousearoundaboutwaytotalkaboutitwhenyouhaveto.

“Meiosisismerelyunderstatementwithouttheuseofnegatives”[18].Examples:

(25)Herdaughterisinprison.---Herdaughterlivesunderthegovernment’sexpense.

(26)Ican’tpromise.---Sorry,thisisinfactmorethanIcanpromise.

“prison”insentence(25)isanunpleasantword.Generalspeaking,peoplearesensitivetotheword“prison”ifoneisinprison,youhadbetteravoidmentioning“prison”infrontofhisrelatives.Sentence(26)isarefusal.Whenyourefusesomeone,indirectwordswillgetabetterresult,fortheywillnotmakehimloseface.

Byusingunderstatements,thespeakersdonotseemtobesocrueltootherswhomtheyspeaksomethingupsettingto.

3.5.3Usingmetonymy

MetonymyisanotherveryusefulrhetoricalmeanstoformEnglisheuphemisms.Itusesthenameofonethingtosubstitutethatofanother.Byusingit,someunpleasantexpressionscanbeavoided.Metonymycanbefurtherdividedintothefollowing.

(ⅰ)Substitutingthetypicalcharacteristicsofapersonfortheperson

Forexample,

(27)Grayhairsshouldberespected.

Intheabovesentence,“Grayhairs”isemployedtoreplace“oldpeople”,forgrayhairisoneofthetypicalcharacteristicsofoldpeople.Since“old”isatabooinEnglish-speakingcountriespeopleexpressitwitheuphemisticwords.

(ⅱ)Substitutingthewholeforthepart

Forexample,

(28)Shehasagoodchest.

Insentence(28),“chest”means“breast”.Peopleconsider“breast”asanungracefulword,sotheyuseroundaboutwaytomentionit.

(ⅲ)Substitutingthetoolsfortheactionorthething

Forexample,

(29)DuringtheWorldWarⅡHitlerattendedtocarryfireandswordintoEverypartoftheworld.

Insentence(29),“fireandsword”hasthesamemeaningwith“war”.Inwesterners’eyes,fireisthesymbolofhopeandswordisthesymbolofjustice.Aswarmakespeoplethinkofmisery,theyusuallydon’tmentionitdirectly.Here,“fireandsword”isusedtocreateasenseofsatire.

(30)Sellingcardsisforbidden.

“cards”insentence(30)means“drugs”.“drug”isasensitivewordasithassomethingtodowithcrimeanddecadence,soitisofteneuphemized.Peopleuse“card”toreferto“drug”forthereasonthatdrugdealersputdisposabledrugsintofoldingpostcardsandsendthemtodrugaddicts.

(ⅳ)Substitutingthenameofaplacefortheperson

Forexample,

(31)Tomissuccessfulinhiscareerbuthewasabrostal.

“Brostal”intheabovesentencemeans“youngcriminal”.“Brostal”isthenameofalocalityinBritain.Becausethefamousyoungcriminalscenterislocatedthere,peopleusethenameofittoreplace“youngcriminal”.

4.CalcificationofEnglisheuphemisms

Englisheuphemismsinvolvesinalmosteveryfieldoflife.Thispapertriestoclassifythemaccordingtothecontent.

4.1Inthefieldofdailylife

4.1.1Aboutoldage

Itisnaturalforpeopletoexperienceadult,middleage,oldageanddeath.Buttowesterners,oldagemeansworthlessandtheoldwillbelookeddownuponorevendeserted.Sonooneadmitsthatheisold.Peopledreadaboutoldagesomuchthattheyseetheword“old”asataboo.Thus,theytrytheirbesttoborrowotherwordstoexpressit,e.g.:“theadvancedinage”,“themature”,“thelongerliving”,“seasonedman”,“seniorcitizens”,etc.Inshort,westernnationshave“seniorcitizens”or“thelongerlived”butno“oldage”.

4.1.2Aboutunemploymentandpoverty

Unemploymentisstillabigsocialprobleminwesterncountries.Itissodreadedthatitalmostmakespeoplebecomeshiveringwhentheythinkofit,particularlyduringperiodsofeconomiccrisis.Andonceyouareoutofwork,povertyistheinevitableresult.Wholikestoliveapoorlife?Thus,unemploymenthasbecomeahottopicinpoliticalcompetition.Nearlyeverycandidatelooksonthelowunemploymentrateasoneofhisorhertrumpstowin.Moreandmorepeoplegetusedtobeconsideratewhentheywanttomentionunemploymentandpoverty.Asaresult,manyvagueexpressionsorwordsarecreatedtoreplacethem.Forexample,whenthebosswantedtodismissJohn,hewas“laidoff”,“easedout”or“giventhewalkingticket”andhebecamea“lay-offworker”.Atfirsthewas“outofpocket”and“livedinreducedcircumstances(penniless)”,thenhe“livedindifficulties(indebt)”,laterhehadnochoicebutto“moveintoasub-standardhousing(slums)”.Besides,“Thepoor”is“thehave-nots”,“theunderprivileged”or“thedisadvantaged”.Andtherearenopoorcountriesintheworldfortheyarereplacedby“developingnations”or“emergingnations”.Whentheseeuphemismsareheardfromthepeople,theyareusedtosoftenharshreality,butwhengovernmentsusethem,theyarechangedintodeceivingwords.

4.1.3Aboutmenialjobsandprofessions

Therearemanypeoplewhoundertakehumblejobsthatarelookeddownuponbythepublic.Forthesakeofpoliteness,peopleuseupgradingeuphemismsto“uplift”thesejobsbyname,notbystatus.Examples:

(32)Maryalwaysturnstoherunclewhenthereissomethingwrongwithhershoesforheisashoerebuilder.

(33)Supervisorsarestrictandmeantoworkers.

(34)Themainworkoftreesurgeonsistomakegoodoftrees.

(35)Weneedapipeengineerbecausethepipeinourkitchenisdripping.

Intheabovesentences,“cobbler”,“foremen”,“treetrimmers”and“plumber”arereplacedrespectivelyby“shoerebuilder”,“supervisors”,“treesurgeons”and“pipeengineer”.And“hairdresser”issubstitutedby“beauticianorhairstylist”;“floor-sweeper”isreplacedby“custodianengineer”;“hiregirl”isspokenas“domesticengineer”;“rat-catcher”issubstitutedby“pestcontroloperator”;“washwoman”isreplacedby“clothesrefresher”,andsoon.Allthesewordsareusedforthesamepurpose:toavoidoffendingpeoplewithhumblejobs.Theusageofoccupationaleuphemismsreflectsasenseofinferiorityaswellasastrivingfor“betterthings”.

4.1.4Aboutmenstruation

Thedesiretoescapefromunpleasantfeelingsbringsoutmanyeuphemismsonexcretionofwomen.Menstruationeuphemismisoneofthem.Suchas“tohaveavisitor”;“myfriendhascome”;andsoon.Alloftheseeuphemismsareusedtoavoidthefeelingofembarrassmentanddistaste.

4.2Inthefieldofeducation

Teachershavetomakecommentsonstudents.Whentheywanttopointoutshortcomingsorbadbehaviorofstudents,theyoftenuseroundaboutwaysinordernottohurtstudentsandtheirparents.Thefollowingaresomemostlyusedeuphemismsinthisfieldandtheirrealmeanings.

“(36)Thestudentisobtuse.---Thestudentisabitslowforhisage.Thestudentsseemstobementallyretarded.

(37)Hehasfailed(flunked)amajorcourse.---I’msorrytofindhimanunderachieverforamajorsubject.

(38)Thestudentislazy.---Thestudentneedstoraisehisambitionabit.I’mafraidthestudenthastoexerthimselfinhisstudy.Heissuretogofarifhecanusehisresourcesfully.He’llgosomewhereifheishighlymotivated.

(39)Thestudentisnoisy.---Heneedstodevelopquieterhabitsofcommunication.

(40)Thestudentisabully.---Heneedshelpinlearningtouseisleadershipqualitiesdemocratically

(41)Helies.---Hehasdifficultyindistinguishingbetweenimaginaryandfactualinformation.

(42)Thestudentcheats.---Heneedshelpinlearningtorespectthepropertyrightofothers.

(43)Thestudentmustmendhisway.–Heneedstobebroughtbackintothemainstream.”[19]

4.3Inthefieldoflaw

Sincecrimesaretabooedinmanysocialsituations,peoplecreatealargenumberofeuphemismstoreplacethem.Hereisalistofcrimesandtheircorrespondingeuphemisms.

CrimesEuphemisms

crooked,fraudulentfree-wheeling

thieffivefingers,adip,afork

violenceaction

murdertakecareof

prostitutebrass,daughterofeve

heroinBigHarry

opiumblackstuff

4.4Inthefieldofpolitics

Politicsisoneofthefertilefieldsforthegrowthofeuphemisms.Witheuphemisms,politiciansalwaysjustifytheiractionsandbeautifytheharshrealitiesforsomecertainpurposes.Onlywhenthepublicbelievesthatthesocietyundertheirleadhasbecomebetter,cantheirpoliticallifesurvives.Thelistofsuchkindofeuphemismsisendless,e.g.:“economiccrisis”isreplacedby“depression”or“recession”;“strike”issaidtobe“industrialaction”;“aggression”isspokenas“preemptiveaction”,“policeaction”or“anti-terroristaction”;“civiliancasualties”issubstitutedby“collateraldamage”;“killingofcitizens”iseuphemizedas“wastingtheenemy”;“concentrationcamps”isreplacedby“strategicvillagesorhamlets”;“retreat”issaidtobe“strategicwithdrawal”;“groundwar”isspokenas“groundoperation”;etc.“Thiskindofeuphemismsisusedtocoverupthetruenatureofsomepoliticalevents,misleadingthepublicwithpleasantandsweetwords.”[20]

4.5Inthefieldofcommerceandindustry

Euphemismscanalsobeseenintheareaofcommerceandindustry.Example:

(44)Johnwasoutofgameandhejumpedfromthe20thfloorofabuildingoutofdesperation.

(45)Sheisanegativesaverforshealwaysbuyssomethingexpensivebutunnecessarysoshehastoborrowmoneyfromothersattheendofeachmonth.

Intheabovesentences,“bankrupt”and“overspender”aresubstitutedby“outofgame”and“negativesaver”.

Somecompaniesarenotlargeenoughtobecalledlargecompanies,buttheydon’twanttouse“fairlylarge”todescribethemselvesforthesenseofdignity.So“substantial”isemployedtoreplace“fairlylarge”,intheeuphemisticexpression“asubstantialandwell-diversifiedgroupcompanies”.Inthisfield,“small”isregardedasataboowordtoo,sopeopleusemanynice-soundingwordstosubstituteit.InEurope“acompact”isequalto“asmallcar”.And“asubcompact”means“atypeofverysmallandinexpensivecar”.Asitisinexpensive,itisattractivetopeople.Sometimes“small”isreplacedby“intimate”or“limited”.Aseverybodyknows,“anintimategathering”isusually“asmallgathering”.“cheap”isanothertabooword.Peopledon’tliketousetheword“cheap”.Instead,theyuseitseuphemisms,suchas“low-cost”,“realisticallypriced”,or“economypriced”.Inordertoattractcustomers,shopkeepersuse“premium-priced”todescribe“expensive”.So,“premium-pricedScotches”infactis“themostexpensiveScotches”.

5.ThesocialfunctionofEnglisheuphemisms

5.1Forevasion

Sincedeathisinevitable,ithasbecomethefearofallhumanbeing.Inearlytime,peopleseldommentioneddeathdirectlybecausetheyweresuperstitiousaboutit.Theybelievedthatdeathwasadevilthatcanhearhuman’svoice.Soifyouspeakofit,itwillappear.Thus,thereweremanyeuphemismsabouttheword“die”suchas“breatheone’slast”and“jointhemajority”.

Diseaseisanotherfearofman.Inprimitivesociety,asthelevelofmedicinewasverylow,peoplescarcelysurvivedwhentheygotsick.Tothem,diseasewasasdreadfulasdeath.Sotheydidn’tspeakitdirectlyeither.Inmodernsociety,althoughmanydiseasescanbecured,peoplearestillafraidofthem.Ontheonehand,thepatientsuffersalotfromit;ontheotherhand,theexpenseisaheavyburdentothefamilyespeciallythepoor.Thecommonresultisthatthepatientregainshishealthbutthewholefamilyhastoliveapoorlifeformanyyearsorevenalltheirlives.Thus,peopleusuallyuseeuphemisticwordswhentheymentionthenamesofdisease.Forexample,the“BigC”replaces“cancer”and“AIDS”substitutes“acquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome”.

InChinesepeople’eyes,westernersarequiteopen-minded.Butthisdoesnotmeanthattheytalkaboutallthewordsrelatedtosexfreely.“Exceptforsomemedicaltermsinaspecialsituation,theymayuseeuphemisticwordstotalkaboutit”[21].Suchas,“tohavesex”and“tomakelove”.Wordsaboutthebirtharealsoseldommentioneddirectlybecausetheymakepeoplethinkofsex.Whenawomanispregnant,sheisdescribedas“tohaveonewatermelononthevine”;“inaparticularcondition”;“tohaveoneontheway”,etc.

5.2Forpoliteness

ThePursuitofbeautyisthenatureofhumanbeing.Beautyhelpsonefeelconfidentwhileuglinessmakesonehaveasenseofinferiority.Soitisimpoliteevenoffensivetosaysomeoneisuglydirectly.Whenpeoplewanttoexpresssomeoneisugly,theyusuallysay“Heisplainlooking”or“Sheisnotpretty”,etc.Withtheimprovementoflivingstandard,moreandmorepeoplehaveaweightproblem.Variousproductsoflosingweightfloodintothemarketforbeingtoofatisnotonlyaproblemofappearancebutalsoaproblemofhealth.Obesitybringsinconvenienceaswellastheriskofmanydiseases.Therefore,therearealotofeuphemismsaboutfatnesslike“plump”,“chubby”or“tubby”,etc.“Skinny”isanotherunpleasantword.Noonelikestobedescribedas“skinny”,buttheywillbereallypleasedwhentheyhearothersdescribethemas“slim”or“slender”.

Thedisabledneedhelpandprotectionbuttheyaresensitive,too.Sopeoplehavetochoosetheirwordscarefullywhentheytalkaboutthem.Manyeuphemisticwordsaredesignedtoavoidmentioningthehandicapped.“deaf”isreplacedby“hardofhearing”;“cripple”iseuphemizedas“theinconvenienced”,andsoon..

5.3Forelegance

Excrementisadisgustingtopicinpoliteconversation.Theyareavoidedbymeansofeuphemisms.“Defecation”referstooneofthesickestelementsintheworld.Whenyougotoseeadoctorforastomachupset,thedoctorwillaskyou,“Howisyourbowelmovement?”Andifhewantstohaveafurtherexamination,hewillneedaspecimenofyourmanure.Ifsomeoneroundshisthumbandindexfingeruptoformtheletter“C”withotherfingersstretchingout,hewantstogotoW.C.Thereareotherexpressionshavingthesamemeaning,like“tosingasong”,“toseethemoon”,“answerthenature’scall”,“doone’sbusiness”orsimply“Excuseme”.

Somepartsofbodyareassociatedwithsex,sotheyareavoidedbeingsaiddirectly.Thisgeneratesalargenumberofeuphemisms.“bigbroweyes”,“bust”or“coconuts”referstofemale’sbreasts;“naturals”,“affair”or“tails”suggestsexorgansofhumanbeing,etc.Likepartsofbody,nakednessisataboooutofembarrassmentorshame.AccordingtotheBible,AdamandEveatethewisefruit,foundthemselvesnakedandfeltveryashamed.TheyhidthemselvesbehindthebushwhentheLordcametoseethem.Thentheyusedfigleavestocoverimportantpartsoftheirbodies.Thisstorydemonstratesthat“nakedness”hasbeenatabooforalongtime.Therearemanyeuphemisticwordsaboutnakedness,like“altogether”and“inone’sbirthdaysuit”.Onceamanwasbathingwithoutlockinghisdoor,oneofhisfriendsrushedintohisroomforemergencyandfoundhewasnaked.Theybothfeltembarrassed.Thenthemanwithnothingonsaid,“YouaretheonebesidesmymotherwhohasseenIaminmybirthdaysuit”.Bothofthemimmediatelyburstintolaughter.

5.4Fordisguise

Everythinghasmeritsanddemerits,andeuphemismisnottheexception.“Oneofthecharacteristicsofeuphemismsisitsvagueness.”[22]Sotheyareemployedtoconcealharshandunpleasantthingsincommunications,creatingaharmonyenvironment.Butitisthisspecialfeaturethatcreateschancesforpoliticiansandbusinessmentomakeuseofeuphemismstoachievetheirselfishgoals.

Politiciansarefamousfortheirabilitytoplaywords.Theycaneventurnfactsupsidedown.Theytrytheirefforttopersuadepeoplethattheyliveabetterlifeundertheirleadershiptherebytogetsupportandholdtheirpositions.Oneoftheeffectivemethodstheyuseistheusageofeuphemisms.Therefore,manyeuphemismsaboutpoliticscanbeseen.Forexample,“logisticalstrikes”isfor“bombingattacks”;“defoliation”isfor“destroyingcrops”,andsoon.

Ifyouwanttosurvivethesharpcommercialcompetition,youhavetokeepalertandattractcustomers,thesourcesofbenefits,bymeansofadvertisements.Euphemismisacommonbutsuccessfulwayusedincommercialadvertisements,foritseemsthateverybodypreferscomplimentsandpraisetoharshandupsettingtruth.Airlinecompaniesareexpertsinusingeuphemisms.Theycallthefirst-class“deluxeclass”,thesecond-classbecomes“first-class”andthethird-classis“economicclass”,“businessclass”or“touristclass”.Inthiscase,passengersinthethird-classwillnotfeelinferioranddon’tlosetheirfaceswhentheytellotherstheytakethe“economicclass”,andpassengersinotherclassesareupliftedatthesametime.

Euphemismthatfunctionsasdisguiseisakindofdeceitfortheycoverupthefactofmatters.

6.Conclusion

Theemergenceofeuphemismsiscloselyrelatedtolanguagetaboosandreligion.Euphemismsareformedthroughvariousdeviceslikephoneticdevices,spellingdevices,vocabularydevices,grammaticaldevicesandrhetoricaldevices.Euphemismsarenowusedinalmostallfieldsoflifesuchasindailylife,inthefieldofeducation,etc.Theyperformthefunctionofevasionwhentheyareusedtoreplacetaboos.Besidesevasion,theyareemployedforpoliteness,eleganceanddisguise.Sinceeuphemismsplayanimportantroleinlanguage,itisagoodwayforEnglishlearnerstoimprovetheirEnglishstudybylearningandemployingEnglisheuphemisms.

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