鹰与蛇范文

导语：如何才能写好一篇鹰与蛇，这就需要搜集整理更多的资料和文献，欢迎阅读由公务员之家整理的十篇范文，供你借鉴。

篇1

篇2

关键词: 语用预设英语听力意义

一、前言

在英语教学中,听力作为一种基本语言技能越来越受到英语教师的重视。然而,听力理解对许多学生来说是一个颇为困难的环节。究其原因,学习者往往只注重语音、词汇、语法等语言知识的提高,而忽略了结合语境因素对语言材料的推理。根据信息处理原则,听力理解是受话者有目的地运用储存在大脑里的原有信息,对收到的信息进行选择、整理加工从而获得新信息,语用预设信息作为语篇信息流的起点引出新信息,新信息继而又转化为后来语篇中的预设信息。

二、语用预设的概念

语用预设的研究开始于语义预设的研究,由于语义预设自身概念的矛盾特点促使越来越多的学者从其他视角考虑语用预设,不再把预设简单地认为是真值预设或逻辑预设;而是加入语境的知识,认为是话语恰当性的条件。“有时人们说一个命题预设另一个命题,有时人们说一句语句(在它的表层形式上)预设一个命题,有时人们说一个人在说一个语句的时候预设了某些东西。语言学家偶尔也说一个词预设了一个命题”。[1]逻辑学家、语言学家们发现,越是深入研究预设理论就越离不开语境的分析,语言外的因素成为影响预设有效传达的关键。促使学者们抛开原有的真值条件的语义预设,而更加注重把预设作为一种语用推理去研究。当然这种趋势也是由于语义预设在概念问题上尚未清晰,预设理论上的不可消除性与预设事实上的可消除性矛盾促使语言学家和逻辑学家从语境的范畴重新审视预设的语用功能。

由于语用预设研究时间尚短,一些基本问题尚在探索中,包括各种理论的融合还有待完善,所以目前还没有一个普遍接受的定义,根据不同学者知识背景,定义不尽相同。有的理解较宽泛,有的理解较狭窄,笔者认为归结起来有两种主要的方式。

第一种从言语交际行为出发,把有效言语交际行为作为预设必须满足的条件。认为预设不能单独构成话语的语句意义,只是为运用话语创造基础,使言语活动能达到交际的目的。如黄华新教授和陈宗明教授认为,“语用预设可以一般地表述为:一个语句S预设命题P(或P是S的预设),当且仅当,使得语句S具有恰当性”。当然,在运用语用预设规则中,“除了满足条件以外还有排除条件。也就是说,一个语句S预设命题P,如果同说话人遵守合作原则或语境因素相矛盾,则命题P被取消”。

另一种理解是从言语交际功能出发,把语用预设看作是实际双方所共有的背景知识,认为自然语言就是要在一定语境中起到成功交际的作用,即说话人说出话语,或听话人理解话语都要加入语境的某些因素。

三、语用预设的特征

(一)语用预设具有共识性

人类社会的复杂性是与人脑的高度发展分不开的,而思维的表达大部分是通过人类的言语表达的,这就造成了人类言语在交际过程中的复杂性。

长期的社会生活使人们以最少信息量传达最大意思成为共识,在交际中往往省略双方已知的信息,或者说话者认为听话者已知的共同背景知识,而这部分省略的信息就是语用预设的共识性。预设的共识性是指说话双方的共同知道的事物,即第三者如不了解预设而只依靠语境,则不一定能真正理解说话双方对话内容。

例:关于小李、小王选派出国的对话。

A:我看,这次出国的名额很难落到小李的头上。

B:噢,我也有同感,小王各方面条件都优于小李,应该是小王。

A:没错!

在以上两者的对话中,显而易见他们的交际取得成功,各自表达了自己的想法,并且二者在对话中都已明确双方的共同知识背景。即单位选派出国人选在小李与小王二者之间,不是小李就是小王,不会有其他人出现。并且当A说小李难选上时,逻辑必然地推出小王能选上。

(二)语用预设具有主观性

语用预设具有主观性,是指说话者带有断言性质的语境假设,本身并不具备必然的真实性或正确性。在言语交际前,双方并不知道对方各自的语用预设的背景知识范围,而只能是在不断深入的交流中,通过自己的判断和双方交际过程中相互质证和认证的过程中实现,但有时这种证实又不能始终保持正确。此时就需要双方修正各自的背景知识范围,达到最大程度上的同构。

例如:“今天的《参考消息》要下午送来,爷爷只好出去遛弯了。”说话者在说出这一命题时,是自己主观上认为听话者能够理解“爷爷每天上午要看《参考消息》”的,比如说话者面对的听者是同住一起的姐姐或是奶奶,那么这样的语用预设就能够被听话者所理解,并将进一步运用到下一步的交际中。但是如果面对的听话者不是自己的家人而是送报纸的邮递员,邮递员也许就不会有与其家人一样的背景知识,仅仅可能会认为每天这家的老人只是取报纸而已,报纸有可能是为这家里其他人定的,比如爸爸。可见,在说话者说出这一预设时,听话者并不一定能够领会,是说话者自己主观上断定的,能否能成为交际中合适的预设还要等听话者的回应才能作出。

(三)语用预设具有隐蔽性

语用预设具有隐蔽性,是指语用预设并不是从字面意思就可以得到的,是隐含在语句中的,需要听话者自己去挖掘。如果不留神就会把预设的“断言”看作是真实的而加以接受,就会陷于复杂问句中,置自己于被动地位。复杂问句的本质是语用预设的隐蔽性,是言语交际的隐含前提。例如对一名检察官来说,当他在询问犯罪嫌疑人是否有作案嫌疑时,他可能会这样说:“你是几点离开案发现场的?”在这种情况下,无论犯罪嫌疑如何回答,都已承认到过案发现场。当然,在我国社会主义法治建设逐渐完善的今天,这样带有诱导式的审讯方式已经不存在

了,但作为一种有效交际的方式在法律界的其他领域,语用预设还是有着它的生命力的。

四、语用预设与英语听力

预设对语境因素十分敏感,并且与说话人和其他语言外因素有密切的关系。有时说话人会根据语用预设在具体语境中的体现方式和隐含意义,将预设进行改变,从而实现自己的语用意图。也就是说,在具体的语言环境中,一个话语可能有多个预设,一个预设也可能有多重含义,即预设的“语境多维性”。

在有些情况下,语用预设是通过明确的标示,如预设的触发语(trigger)来表示出来的。但在有些情况下,语用预设则表现得不那么明显,这就需要学生运用语用推理推导出话语中隐含的语用预设,从而正确理解会话含义。下面,笔者通过实例,分析测试者如何在听力测试中运用语用预设来考查受试者的语篇理解能力。

(一)对话理解

1.推断说话者之间的关系

W:This is the third time you’ve been late this week,Robert,you’ll have to do better than that,or I might find it necessary to let you go.

M:It won’t happen again,I assure you.

Q:Who spoke to Robert?

通过这道题,我们了解到女士说的Robert这个星期已经是第三次迟到了,还有像“let go”这样的信息。通常是老板解雇雇员,这是本题所蕴含的语用预设。因此,通过这一预设我们不难判断出,说话双方的关系是老板与雇员之间的关系。

2.推断引申含义

M:The light in the dining room is a little too bright,don’t you think so?

W:It’s perfect for a football stadium.

Q:What does the woman mean?

足球场必须灯光通明,而西方餐厅流行幽暗朦胧的灯光是本题的这一具体语境的语用预设。在此预设的基础上进行分析推理,就可以得出那位女士说的话是同意先生的意见的。

(二)短文填空

短文主要是考查考生对文章达意、中心思想、重要事件的理解和领会,以及根据所获得的相关信息对文中的某些细节作出联想、判断,也有就短文中的某一事实和任务进行提问的题目。在听力短文测试中,考生不要期望字字句句都听得真切,抓住短文中最能反映主旨大意和主题的关键词汇或短语分析出短文的语用预设,然后进行成功推断才是重要的听力策略。

五、结语

语用预设作为交际双方共有的背景知识,对言语信息传递起着不容忽视的作用。听者只有与发话者建构同一预设信息,才能达到理解话语的目的。在英语听力教学中,教师要有意识地讲授一些相关的预设知识,引导学生根据听力文字材料和答案选项等线索,从中发现一些背景预设信息,以缩小谈话者的话题范围,最后推断出听话人所需的信息。

参考文献:

[1]中国人民大学哲学系逻辑教研室.逻辑学.北京:中国人民大学出版社,2003:79-84.

[2]邹崇理.逻辑.语言与信息.北京:人民出版社,2002:76-78.

[3]黄华新,陈宗明.描述语用学.长春:吉林人民出版社,2005:135.

[4]熊学亮.语言学新解.上海:复旦大学出版社,2003:15-18.

[5]张春泉.语用逻辑刍议.浙江社会科学.2004.5:148.

[6]何向东,袁正校.交际意图――语用推理的目标.自然辩证法研究增刊.2000.6:67.

篇3

尼康中国：#尼康学堂# 选择在色相环上位置接近的颜色，并将它们一起摄入，画面色调会非常和谐。而大自然里充满了这种和谐，比如绿色与黄色就可以创作出值得称赞的画面。秋季是拍摄这类题材的好时节，到处都充满了黄色、棕色和橙色，摄友们不妨多出去走走。

10月21日 10:17 来自新浪微博

新摄影：除了购买昂贵的器材外，你还能想出多少微距摄影的方法？设计师Clif Dickens用了一样非常便宜且简单的工具：放大镜。他使用放大镜和iPhone 3GS拍摄微距照片。这套器材最大的优点就在于，可以随时随地享受微距摄影的乐趣。

11月14日16:48 来自新浪微博

尼康中国：#尼康学堂# 外出拍摄可随身携带的小物件：1.黑布：方便人工布置背景，突出主体；2.白布、白卡纸(有一定硬度)、小夹子：一是可以方便补光，二是可以挡风，以防花草在风中摇摆；3.省略/SAmIyg

11月14日 16:58 来自 新浪微博专业版

新摄影：若干年前国际职业婚礼摄影师协会做过一次关于摄影师如何分配时间的调查。在一般人想象中，摄影师80%时间在拍照，其他时间在国外旅行和开party。然而真实的情况是职业摄影师主要时间用来做后期，其他还有一堆零碎工作，真正用来拍照的时间只有12.2%。

11月7日17:38 来自新浪微博

以色列在中国：犹太摄影师Sanzetti先生上世纪在上海开设的“上海美术照相馆”曾经给无数人留下回忆。如今，我们从Sanzetti先生的继子手里拿到了约两百余张他本人珍藏的一批老照片。希望能够找到照片中人物的姓名、身份，拾起照片背后的回忆和故事。

10月27日 13:31 来自新浪微博

【人物】

环球摄影：#运动中的静态美# Lois Greenfield，美国摄影师，她拍摄的舞蹈摄影作品，是业内首屈一指的。在Lois Greenfield摄影生涯的最近25年里，她致力于对运动和运动的表现力的研究。她的灵感一直来源于她可以停止时间，揭示肉眼看不到的事物的能力。

11月10日 13:25 来自新浪微博

李维LeviTong：摄影是一件需要天赋的事情，后天刻意的学习只能雕琢你的匠气，却无法改变你观看世界的方式。世上本没有什么决定性瞬间，Jacques Henri Lartigue的照片让你明白，生活之大赋予了每一个瞬间无限的可能。他的著名照片许多都是在童年时代拍的，直到他68岁的时候他儿时拍的照片才为世人所知，成为一代摄影大师。

11月10日 12:51 来自新浪微博

篇4

本片中的官方宣传海报中，有一个穿着红衣服的小女孩，这在一个黑白电影中显得尤为特别，可见作者对于这个色彩应用的重视。现代电影越来越注重色彩的应用，色彩不仅仅是电影语言的基本构成原元素，也更加是一种艺术手法，色彩的运用不仅仅是对生活的本色的还原，更是多层次的以及有深度的呈现，《辛德勒名单》是一部黑白片，除了黑白色彩的强烈反差，本片的色调相对来说较为暗淡，这也为整部片子奠定了一个阴暗、悲怆的情感基调，与电影的主题和内容结合紧密，斯皮尔伯格在拍摄这部电影的时候曾经说，他除了黑白色别无选择，尽管本片的色调是黑白为主的冷色系，但导演还是巧妙地安排了清凉和明朗的颜色，就是那个在大屠杀之前穿着血色裙子的小女孩，在黑白色为主的电影中，那个红色显得那么的美丽和鲜艳甚至刺眼，足够引起观众的重视和思考，红色裙子的设定分别在是片头和片尾部分，到第二次出现的时候，穿红色裙子的孩子躺在了堆积如山的尸体上，并瞬间被无尽的灰暗所吞噬，显然她并没有走进辛德勒的名单里。这也是本片色彩运用的亮点，它的暗示和象征意义非常明显，就是让观众去思考和深思，红色代表着生机和活力，被无尽的黑暗吞噬也象征着人类历史上那段惨无人道的历史，紧扣本片的主题，象征着泯灭人性的德国纳粹对于人类生存和希望的毁灭，这种明显的暗示所产生的视觉和心理的冲击力是巨大的，而且也非常容易理解，是导演独具匠心的色彩安排，也是本片色彩艺术的重要体现。值得一提的是，本片的片尾部分是用彩色画面拍摄的，特别是很多被奥斯卡救下来的犹太人的后人纷纷来到这里纪念他们的救命恩人，一个个的小石子以及鲜艳的花儿，都表达着人们浓浓的情意，结局部分的场景是在一个山丘上，整体的拍摄手法是采用高调摄影，色彩相对柔和、轻快，这里的色彩运用体现着导演对于和平和美好的赞美，也对于观众有一定的抚慰作用，结局的美好也象征着电影“善”主题的回归。

二、电影音乐欣赏

合理的电影音乐对于电影剧情的推动、情感表达有着非常重要的作用。音乐鉴赏也是电影欣赏设计的重要环节，那些或激情、或舒缓、或轻快的音乐真实而细腻地表现了电影的情感，也体现着一个导演内心世界的主观感受。影片中有一幅场景是，为了避免尸体腐烂引起的瘟疫以及掩盖罪证，纳粹人开始将堆积如山的尸体进行焚烧，高大的烟囱冒着浓浓的黑烟，这个时候舒缓的古典音乐响起，并配合男女声的伴唱充分地融合，像是一声声微弱的哭诉直击观众的心灵，这个时候的音乐与画面的结合恐怕只能用熨帖两个字来形容了，正是音乐与画面的这种完美贴合，将影片的主题发挥到了极致。片中对于音乐的运用并不刻意强调调动观众的情感，更加是一种平和的自然的描述，是随着情节的展开一气呵成的，甚至通篇来看，几乎都是非常柔和的抒情方式，好像是一个人在平静地讲故事，而不是有意带动观众的情绪，这大概是对于音乐运用的最高境界了。也说明了斯皮尔伯格对于电影艺术的独特见解，音乐自然运用也给了观众足够的想象空间，平和的电影音乐不会干扰观众对电影的理解和判断，反而更加能够触发观众的情感共鸣，更加有助于观众去思考和理解电影所要传达的深刻的思想内涵。

三、电影的叙事风格

本片作为一部文艺电影，在全球获得了3.21亿美元的票房实属难得，这与本片的叙事结构有着非常重要的关系。很多的文艺电影相对来说比较枯燥，导演过多地强调电影的文艺性而忽视了故事性，非常影响观众的观影体验，毕竟电影的根本目的是来讲故事的，而电影的叙事结构和风格对于电影叙事有着直接的关系。本片将当时重大的历史事件浓缩到了一个人的命运当中。也就是说电影是有着两条叙事线索的，一个是主角本身，另一个是历史背景。《辛德勒名单》是历史纪实电影，本身就属于非常严肃的历史题材，因此本片主要的叙事风格和技巧体现在以人物为主线的叙事过程中，通过人物本身的经历、情感真实地表现出一个完整的故事，并让观众去感受这个故事，是本片叙事结构的主要特点。从理论上分析，本片的叙事结构是采用一个个片段的动作关系和时间关系的组合，每个自然的片段之间并没有直接的因果关系，这既是历史纪实电影的特点，也是本片想要刻意强调的，即它不再是一部电影，而是一段段真实历史的再现，让观众在观影过程中产生强烈的真实感和代入感，比如对于集中营的描写显得非常散乱，表面上看似随意穿来街头的枪杀、焚尸等情节的设定，实际上是有目的的组织和安排，与本片直线型的叙事结构有着很好的辅助作用。尽管这种自然客观的叙事结构和风格并无太多技巧而言，但正是由于历史中荒诞、讽刺、矛盾的现实，才让本片的故事富有生机。例如德国人接受了犹太工程师的意见以后直接将其枪杀，德国上尉杀人如麻却每每打不出子弹，火车错误地开进了奥斯维辛集中营，这些片段的设置情节发展所必须的，并非是毫无组织的散乱的历史片段，始终是围绕影片的主题来开展的。每一个历史片段的设置都与情节有着深刻的联系，或者其内在本身就是叙事的重要环节，比如片尾部分犹太人走向了地平线时，象征着内在意义上的自由和新生。另外本片的叙事风格也在其镜头语言中有所体现，为了真实还原历史场景，本片大量的在波兰实地取景，甚至历史的场景和片段都是真实的画面，以此来表现那个动荡年代的真实情况。

四、结语

篇5

[Key words]: Euphemism， application， social influence， positive， negative

【摘 要】 语言交际是人类以维系社会关系的重要手段，因而人们在交际中通常避免使用引起双方不快从而损害双方关系的语言，而是采取迂回曲折的方法来表达思想，交流信息，它不仅是种语言现象，而且是社会现象和文化现象。委婉语言体现了相应的社会文化传统。本文主要阐述了英语委婉语的构成方法以及它的社会影响，并着重从修辞手段，语义手段，构词手段及语法手段对委婉语言作了较全面的分析，并对委婉语在交际中的语用功能和表达方式做了一些探讨，从委婉语的“避讳”功能，“礼貌”功能和“掩饰”功能三个方面探讨了委婉语在社会生活中的运用，了解委婉语在运用中的积极作用和消极作用， 有助于我们更深入的了解英语国家人们的思维方式、社会价值观、道德观以及文化风俗，对于提高自身言语交际功能是十分必要的。

【关键词】 委婉语； 运用； 社会影响; 积极；消极

1. Introduction

Euphemism is originally from Greek， meaning， “speak with gook words”. “eu” means “well or sounding well”; “pheme” means “speech”. Its definition in Oxford English Dictionary is “(example of the) use of pleasant， mild， or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones.”[1]

The appearance of euphemism is based on two reasons: one aims to take the place of “taboo”. When giving up a taboo word， people will find another new one to take the place of it， which creates a euphemism. The other aims to avoid offensiveness during the communication. It is a figure of rhetoric by which an unpleasant or offensive thing is described or referred to by a milder term.

In English language， euphemism is widely used in the daily communications. In order to achieve the aim of “taboo”， it is used to avoid the unpleasant thing; in order to achieve the aim of “politeness”， it is used to avoid the inelegant things[2]， which are the two social psychological basis of the emergence of euphemism. Euphemism is one of the important parts of figure of speech. It is not only a linguistic phenomenon， but also a kind of social phenomenon and cultural phenomenon. Euphemism in use differs from person to person， from profession to profession， even from class to class[3] ， That’s why sometimes the meaning of some euphemisms will puzzle you if you do not know the background of English culture. To grasp the English euphemism can not only help us open our eyes， but strengthen our ability of reading comprehension. This paper aims to discuss the application of euphemism in English and to make acknowledge of its social influence， which could help us use euphemism in a correct way.

2. Ways to express euphemism

2.1. Figure of speech

2.1.1. Metonymy.

That is to use the general words to take the place of the concrete words. “Passed away” which refers to “dead” belongs to metonymy. It can be pided into the following forms: 1) to use the container to take the place of the things in the container. For example: “to be fond of the bottle” is a euphemism for “liking to drink”. 2) To use the entirety instead of the part. For example: “abdomen” is used to refer to “belly”; “limb” refers to “leg”. For some special occasions， the part can be used instead of the entirety. In Australian English “an old hand” is a euphemism for “an old prisoner”. 3) To use the tools to take the place of the objects. For example， “pick” is a tool of prying the lock. It can refer to “thief”. 4) To use raw materials to take the place of finished products. For instance， “poppy” is a kind of flower， but it also refers to “opium”. 5) To use characteristics to take the place of objects. For example， “hellow” is a greeting word， and it is also a euphemism for “prostitute” because prostitutes often use this word to solicit the whoremasters; “blood and iron” is a euphemism for “violence”. 6) To use proper words to replace the objects. For example， “napoleon” is a French golden coin on which there is Napoleon’s head portrait. “Borstal” is a name of countryside in Kent in Britain. It can also refer to “juvenile delinquency”.

Sometimes， some euphemisms are frequently used instead of the original words; people gradually forget their euphemistic identities. They are not used in terms of euphemisms but have their own independent meanings. For instance， take above-mentioned “poppy”， now if you look up this word in the dictionary， you can find the meaning of “opium”， it has lost its euphemistic function. And， if you do not know the background， you can not know the meaning of “Napoleon” and “Borstal”. Therefore， we can see the importance of knowing the background of English culture. It can help you a lot to recognize and understand the real meaning of euphemism and make good use of it.

2.1.2. Metaphor

To use metaphor can easily avoid the offensive things. For example， wherefore it is better to be a guest of the law， which， though conducted by rules， does not meddle unduly with a gentleman’s private affairs. (O. Henry， The Cop and the Anthem) “to be a guest of the law” is a euphemism for “to be in prison”[4]， Many euphemisms for “death” were created by way of metaphor， such as going to his long home， to be home and free， to go to sleep， to sleep the long (or eternal， never-ending) sleep， to rest in peace， to be at rest， to go to Heaven (or Paradise)， to join one’s ancestors， to be gathered to one’s fathers， to join the immortals. More examples are: agedsunset years， to be poorto be pinched， to have improper sexual intercourse with girls(especially maiden) to deflower; to degenerateto go astray; breastmilk bottles; catameniathe red flag; to be pregnantto be on the nest; the money of briberygrease; to bribeto grease somebody’s palm; handcuffsbracelets.

2.1.3 Personification

People’s names are often used to replace taboo words. For example， “Big Harry” refers to “heroin” because “Harry” and “heroin” have the same initials. “Lavatory” also has many euphemistical expressions. In 19th century， it was called “ my aunt Jones”， “Mrs. Jones”， “Sir John”， “Sir Harry”， “the Henry”， while in 20th century， it was called “jakes”， “john” etc. But the latter color of personification becomes weak. The first letter can be written in small letter. People just use it as a common noun. In fact， they have lost the euphemistic function. There are many humorous ways to express catamenia in terms of personification: 1) My friend has come. 2) I have a visitor. 3) My cousins/country cousins have come. 4) My auntie/grandmother has come to stay. 5) Little sister is here. 6) I’ve got painters in. 7) the cardinal has come.

2.1.4. Analogy

In the euphemisms for occupation people often use analogy， which makes the humble name more elegant[5] ， For example， “chef” is a euphemism for “cook”. It is borrowed from French word “chef de cuisine”. “Beautician” refers to “hairdresser”; “garbologist” refers to “garbage collector”; “mortician” refers to “undertaker”. There also appeared some beautiful names for barbershop: hair salon， beauty parlour， and stylist parlour.

2.1.5. Ellipsis

That is to omit the offensive words while speaking， such as to be expecting (a baby)， to have (sexual) relations with somebody， to take precautions (against pregnancy)， to depart (from this world). Of course， such phrases should be put into a certain context， which can express the meaning of euphemisms.

2.1.6. Periphrasis

It is an expression of beating around the bush. Though it is a muddled acting， its aim is to avoid offending others， and to be more polite[6]. If someone asked a woman whether she was knitting a tiny garment， he meant that he wondered whether she was pregnant. Such way of speaking is humorous， sweet and agreeable， such as to dieto close one’s eyes， to expire， to breathe one’s last; to defecate and to urinateto wash one’s hands， to ease or relieve oneself， to do one’s business; to courtto go walking; to be pregnantto eat for two; lavatorywashroom， cloakroom; fartwind from behind; women’s underclothesunmentionables; trousersnether garments; ask you to go awaycall your carriage for you; to dismissto give somebody the sack; to be in prisonto live at the government's expense. Teachers often use this expression to avoid the students’ and their parents’ awkwardness. For example， laziness is called “needing ample supervision in order to work well”; “cheat” is described as “needing help in learning to adhere to rules and standards of fair play”; “lies” is called “showing difficulty in distinguishing between imaginary and factual material”; “steal” is called “needing help in learning to respect the property rights of others”; “be a bully” refers to “having qualities of leadership but needs help in learning to use them democratically”; “dirty” is called “ be lack of proper health habits”.[7]

2.2. Semantic method

2.2.1. Synonym

For example， “tight” is used instead of “stingy”; “thrift” is used instead of “economical”，“defecate” replaces “shift” and “urine” replaces “piss” . And “mad” is replaced by “crazy”， “insane”， and “lunatic”. Such euphemism aims to use the appreciative term to take the place of the derogatory term.

2.2.2. Negation

Such euphemism uses the contrary term to express the same meaning， and it could be more useful than synonym in replacing the taboo and make people more understandable and comfortable. We could call stupid people unwise people. “A fat chance” means “a slim chance”and “find words” stands for “bad words”

2.2.3. Vague words and expressions

That is to make the harsher or offensive words more general. For example， if somebody has some mental problems， we can express it like this: His roof leaks a little; he has a screw loose/missing; he is not at home. There are other examples which use vague expressions， such as diseasetrouble， problem; to come across an unfortunate thingto have an accident; V. D. (venereal disease) secret disease; to live together illegallyto cohabit; intrauterine devicering; to rape somebodyto do violence to somebody; prostitutea woman of the streets， a woman of a certain class， a painted woman， a lady of the night girl; to entertain whorehouse visitorsto see company; whorehousehouse; a squintan obliquity of vision; a man of bad tastea man of doubtful taste; strikeindustrial action; the poorthe underprivileged， the disadvantaged; in debtin difficulties; buttocksbehind， bottom， backsides; homosexualqueer; sexual intercourseintimacy; to be killedto be put to sleep.

2.2.4. Loan words

Because from the period of Renaissance， Latin， Greek， and French are considered as cultured words[8]. People consider that those languages are more elegant， tactful and ambiguous. In the early 19th century， no matter in Britain or America， people used French word “enceinte” instead of English word “pregnant”. It is popular till now because the former is more elegant， tactful and ambiguous. English borrows words not only from French but also from other languages in many kinds of ways to create its own euphemism. For example， “lavatory” was borrowed from Latin word “lavatorium”， but it lost its meaning of euphemism because of long- time using. Therefore， people borrowed another euphemism from French “toilette” which was respelled into “toilet”， and it became the most popular euphemism referring to lavatory. French words “chemise” and “lingerie” are euphemisms for “underwear” and “blouse” respectively. “sushi” was borrowed from Japanese “すし”. Its original meaning is a kind of Japanese food. People put it into a phrase “a little tongue sushi”， which means “tongue kissing”. The above words mostly belong to the common vocabulary. In addition， euphemisms also borrow some science and technological words and academic words that are cold， clinic and antiseptic. Such words are mainly from Latin and Greek. For example， Latin word “coitus” is a euphemism for “fuck”; Native words “shit” and “piss” are all dirty words， while Latin word “defecation” and Greek word “urination” are all accepted easily.

2.2.5. Understatement

That is to state some serious things in a temperate way in order to avoid being awkward and strident[9] . For example， “She was neither quite pretty nor quiet plain.” “Plain” is used instead of “ugly”; “My cousin Jimmy was a bit soft in the head.” “Soft in the head” means “mad”; “The boy used to take things without permission and has just been out of the rehabilitation home in the country.” (steal， detention home); the period of economic depressiona period of economic adjustment; money for briberykickback， commission; poor familieslow income families; falling behindless advanced; retarded childrenless able children; an ugly girla plain or homely girl; disabledphysically handicapped; to be illto look off color， to feel unwell or uncomfortable; treatmenthealth care; old ageadvanced in age.

2.3. The variety of pronunciation and spelling form

English is an alphabetic writing. The variation of phonetic form can avoid the original conception in a certain degree and achieve the purpose of euphemism. 1) Compounding: gezunda (goes under). 2) Acronym: DA (drug addict)， KG (know gambler)， B.O.T (balance of time)， J.D (juvenile delinquent)， P and Q (peace and quiet). 3) Back-formation: burgle (burgler) 4) chipping: vamp (vampire)， homo (homosexual)， gents (Gentlemen’s Room)， and ladies (Ladies Room)[10].

There is an interesting example: “laboratory”， the original stress was on the first syllable. But it sounded similarly to “lavatory”. In order to avoid the unpleasant connection， the stress was moved to the second syllable. Such phenomenon is called Assonance. That is to make use of or to create words， which have the same or similar pronunciations with euphemistic words in order to achieve the purpose of euphemism. Therefore， in English there is a way of personification to express “catamenia”: The captain is at home. It is because “captain” is assonant with the medical science term “catamenia”. In oral English， “pee” is used to refer to “piss”， which has the same reason.

2.4. Grammar

That is to use past tense， negative sentence to express euphemism. For example， I can see by your face that you don’t think that was wise. The negative form means “thinking that was foolish”; “How do we feel today?” Using “we” instead of “you” shows the moderation and geniality. “I wanted to…” “I wondered…” often take the place of “I want to…” “I wonder…” Such expression is often used in oral English.[11]

3 The Social Influences of Euphemism

Euphemism is widely used in America and Britain. It has a long history. New euphemisms emerge in an endless stream. According to its applied functions， I’d like to pide it into three parts: Avoidance， Courtesy and Disguise. Through studying the three functions， we can understand the western society’s view on value and morality.

3.1. Avoidance

The earliest subject of Euphemism is religious[12]. The conception of taboo is deep-rooted in people’s mind， and it is not easy to remove. The appearance of taboo could date back to ancient Greek and ancient Roman. In human’s eyes God owns a super power that could control everything. Because fearing of the secret power， People use euphemism to avoid mentioning the guilty， unpleasant， rude or offensive words， which plays a role of purifying languages. For example， European Americans avoid speaking “Friday” and “13”. When the two things appear in the same day， it is an ill omen. And there is an example: there appeared an episode in 1972 when President Nicoson visited China. Chinese Premier Zhou went to Shanghai to receive American visitors. He found that Mr. and Mrs. Nicoson were arranged to live in Room15， Kissinger in Room14， but some state councilors in Room13? The Western people often take Number 13 as a taboo. After entering their apartments， Premier Zhou was aware that these Western visitors seemed unhappy. So he explained:” it is a pity that we have made a serious mistake. We ignored the special Western culture.” He continued，” There was an old Chinese fable that when a man was afraid of ghost， the more he thought， the more he felt terrified. At the time he felt no fear， he began to look for the ghost， but the ghost disappeared…Number 13 in Western culture looked like the Chinese ghost.” Hearing his story， the American visitors laughed heartily. At last they cooled down. From this example， we can realize the necessity of the cultural infiltration in language communication. So we must pay attention to the social influence of euphemism. This avoidance function is the first communication function of euphemisms[13]. Such function is often used in the following situations:

转贴于 3.1.1. The euphemisms for God and devil

The Ten Commandments of Bible has prescribed， “Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain.” That’s why there are so many euphemisms. In oral English， using “God” causally would be considered blasphmous. If someone say “God damni it” he is treason and heresy， and would be punished [14] . Some of them adopt the semantic method， such as the Creator， the Maker， the Supreme (Being)， Holy One， the Almighty， the Eternal， Our Father， the Saviour， King of Kings， Lord of lords， the Light of the World， Sovereign of the Universe. Some of them adopt the phonetic method， such as Gad， Gosh， Golly， Godfrey etc. There are many euphemisms for “the devil”， such as old enemy， old Ned， Old Nick， Old One， Ole’un (Old Man)， Old Scratch， Old Serpent， the Old Boy etc. For example， “He was frightened as if Old Harry were before him.” In English they often use “heck” instead of “hell”. “hell” has other expressions: “the other place， a very uncomfortable place， the other way etc.” For example， “We were all going direct to Heaven; we were all going direct the other way.” [15]

3.1.2 The euphemisms for death

Euphemism is often caused in speaking of things that are painful and distressing to think about. Death is one of expressions. The euphemisms for death are a widely used item， especially when it concerns one’s own families and friends. It has a lot of expressions[16]. For example， if anything should happen to me (= when I die); to pass away/ on; to depart; to go to sleep; to be no longer with us; to be interred. “Death” also has some humorous expressions: “to pop off; to push up daisies; to cash in one’s chips; to kick the bucket ”. “Death” also has an intimate relationship with religion. There are many euphemisms from Bible， for example， to return to dust/ earth; to pay the debt of nature; to be called to God/ to answer the final summons; to go to heaven; to be at peace， to be asleep in the Arms of God; to yield up the ghost; to launch into eternity; to have one’s name inscribed in the Book of life etc. Some words， which concern “death”， also have euphemistic expressions. For example， “coffin” is called “casket”; “dead body” is called “earthly remains”; “funeral” is called “memorial service”; “graveyard” is called “memory garden”.

3.1.3. The euphemisms for illness， natural and man-made calamities

Most westerners avoid talking about some serious diseases. For instance， “terminally ill” is a euphemism for “cancer”; American and British newspapers often name “syphilis” as “social disease”; “leprosy” is called “Hansen’s disease”; “constipation” is called “irregularity”. “tumour” is called “a growth”; “commit suicide” is called “self-deliverance or self-violence”. People often use initialing to avoid talk about some diseases directly， such as AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome); Big C (Cancer); VD (Venereal Disease) etc. “to die because of a crash” is called “old Newton took him”; “hara-kiri” is called “happy dispatch”; “an unnatural death” is called “to be blown across the creek”

3.1.4. The euphemisms for sex

Nearly all languages consider “sex” a taboo word. In the west， when children asked their parents where they came from， their parents often answered the baby was a visit from the stork. People can say “pregnant” instead of “expecting” or “in the family way”; “fart” is also written into the dictionary. You can say it directly instead of saying， “wind from behind” It is just because of the movement of “sex liberty” and “sex liberation”. People can have a freer talk about “sex” than Victorian age. On the contrary， some other new euphemisms for sex appeared one after another. “Sexual knowledge” is called “facts of life”; “pornographic movies” is called “adult films”; “cohabitation” has become very common in western society. It is also called a kind of marriage: “trial marriage” or “unmarried wife”. Nevertheless， with the sharp increase of the rate of porce， there appeared many euphemisms for porce: “to break up”， “to split up， and “matchruptcy” (a blending of “match” and “bankruptcy”). And the homosexuality would be called “Greek arts”， “queer”， “gay”. There is another interesting phrase “to go to Reno”. “Reno”， a small city in the west of Nevada， is famous for its easy and fast procedures of porce. So “to go to Reno” also becomes a euphemism for porce.

3.1.5. The euphemisms for birth

Contrary to the Chinese traditional opinion， in western countries， “being pregnant” and “having a baby” are not considered “a blessed event”. Australian English even call it “a blasted event”. In America， “to wear the apron high”， “to wear/have the belly high” are euphemisms for “to be pregnant”， while in Britain， “to wear the bustle wrong” is a euphemism for “to be pregnant”. In 19th century， a slim waist is the ideal figure for British women. Therefore， “to be pregnant” is also called “to be awkward”， “in a bad way/shape”; “to make a woman pregnant” is called “to spoil/ruin a woman’s shape”. Some one even called “to be pregnant” “to be caught” or “to be fallen”. Some vague expressions also show a kind of restless mood， such as: that way， in a certain/particular/delicate condition etc. The use of humor is another feature of euphemism for “being pregnant”. American people are likely to say “to have a watermelon on the vine”， or “to swallow a watermelon seed”. British people are likely to say “to have a bun in the oven” or “to have an Irish toothache” (to make fun of Irish people who are pregnant as commonly as having a toothache).

3.2. Courtesy

Another reason to use euphemism is that it avoids the harsh and direct word in a polite way， and makes the sentence sound more pleasant. To grasp the polite function of euphemism can help you build a good relationship with others. The polite functions are especially reflected in the occupations， or trades. It relate with Politeness Principle of Leech[17]. It is obvious that advertisement is aimed at helping businessmen propaganda their goods， for the sake of soliciting customs. As a pleasant way， using euphemisms in advertisements has become more and more widespread. Now， “secondhand store” has been replaced by “resale store”， “super”， “giant”， “special”， such words， have become more popular. Moreover， we can often see the same phenomenon about the expressions for classes of cabins. To defend passengers ’honor， “First Class” is changed to “Deluxe Class”， “Second Class” is to “First Class”， “Third Class” to “Business Class”， and “Economic Class” to “Tourist Class”. This function undoubtly plays an active role of improving the progress of society:

3.2.1. The euphemism for the office and trade

For example， “mental hospital or mental health center” is a euphemism for “madhouse”; “mortuary or funeral” is a euphemism of dead house. Some small companies or small enterprises like to use the word “industry”， such as hotel industry， tourist industry， garage industry， women’s beauty industry etc.

3.2.2. The euphemism for occupation

In order to promote the social status of the occupation， almost every humble occupation has a sweet-sounding name. There are mainly two forms:

1). Compound. That is to choose some sweet-sounding occupational names to make up compound or compound phrases. For example， today we can find many occupations in America and Britain named with “engineer”: sanitary (or sanitation) engineer; building (custodian， dwelling) engineer; automobile engineer; dry cleaning engineer， pipe engineer; heating engineer; packing engineer; sales engineer; housewifedomestic engineer; the person who is in charge of killing mice and cockroachesexterminating(extermination) engineer. There are some other common titles: automotive repairmanautomotive internist; garden workerlandscape architect; prison guardcorrectional officer; pest-killerpest control operator; butchermeat technologist. Some humble occupations have many euphemistic names at the same time. For example， people often call “hair stylist” “tonsorial artist”， while people call “female hairdresser” “woman surgeon”; “undertaker” also has many expressions: bereavement counselor， grief therapist， funeral director， funeral service practitioner. Besides “engineer” housewife also can be called “household executive”， “homemaker”， even “domestic manager”; “Prostitute” also has many euphemisms， such as pavement princess， working girl， streetwalker， call girl， business girl etc.

2). Derivation. That is to choose some Latin and Greek prefixes whose meanings refer to “a person”， such as “-(o) logist”. “mixologist” is a euphemism for “a bar’s waiter”; dustman for garbologist; female hairdresser for cosmetologist; undertaker for mortician; cobbler for shoetrician; locksmith for locktician. Some special occupational names have adopted two prefixes. For example cosmetologist and cosmetician both refer to “female hairdresser”. Moreover， Latin prefix “-arian” is originally used in religion， but now it is also used in the occupation， such as: bartarian， sanitarian. Another Latin prefix “-ian” is also used popularly， such as custodian (entrance guard or dustman). Some people even want to change the native prefix “-er” to the Latin prefix “-or” because they think the foreign prefix is more elegant and sweet-sounding， such as weldor， wild animal trainor.

3.2.3. The euphemisms for the aged and weight

The age， especially a woman’s age is regarded as a sensitive privacy. And most of the western people are afraid of getting old， so they call “old people” “senior citizens”. ”old age” and “senility” can easily cause the fear of the old people. Some euphemistic expressions take the place of them， such as “getting on (in years)， past one’s prime， feeling one’s age， second childhood， a distinguished gentleman， a grande dame， third age”. The old people become “an elder statesman” or “old age pensioner” or even use initialing “OAP”. They are not “old” but “long-lived”. Old people’s home， of course， is not an ideal place for old men to live in. There are many euphemistic expressions: a home for adults， a nursing home， a rest home， a private hospital， a convalescent hospital. The old people who live there are called euphemistically “a resident”.

In western country， it is very impolite if you talk about someone’s figure and weight without reservation. If someone is “fat”， “overweight” is often used to replace it. “weight-watchers” is also a euphemism for “fat people”. To female， “a fat girl” is called “a fuller figure or plump”; to male， “fat” is called “stout”; to child， it is called “chubby”. On the contrary， if someone is too thin， euphemism is also used. To male， it is called “lean”， and to female， it is called “slim， slender， willowy or svelte”.

3.2.4. The euphemisms for poverty and unemployment

The topic of poverty and unemployment might cause some embarrassment， so people often use euphemism when their talks concern such things. For example， “dismissal” is often called “lay off， ease out， get the walking ticket/pink slip”; “bankruptcy” is called “out of the game”; “penniless” is called “out of pocket， in reduced circumstances， badly off， needy etc.”; “the poor people” is called “the have-nots， the underprivileged， the disadvantaged”; even their houses also have a sweet-sounding name-“substandard housing”. The euphemism for unemployment has many expressions. Most of them are humorous， such as “between jobs”， “between shows”， “to be developing a new project”， “to receive a Mexican raise/ an Irish promotion” (to raise a promotion without raising the salary)， “to be self-employed”. In America “unemployed men” are called “claimants”， while， in Britain， they are called “to be on public assistance”. Of course， some euphemisms are pessimistic: The British unemployed men can take 50 percent off the ticket of a film and a drama， so they also can be called “the less fortunate”.

3.2.5. The euphemisms for excretion

All words concerning “excretion” except tears are considered taboo words. The euphemisms for “lavatory” have many ways of expressions， such as water closet， cloakroom， comfort station， toilet (which is popular in Britain)， restroom (which is generally used in America). In America， “convenience station” is written English， while “bathroom” is oral English. “John” is slang， while “poet’s corner” is a crack joke. In Britain， they use “Jakes” instead of “John”. They use “public comfort station” instead of “public convenience station”. Men’s lavatory is called “Gent’s， the John， the washroom”; Women’s lavatory is called “Ladies’， the powder room， powder one’s nose (Br.); powder one’s puff (Am.); Mrs. Jones”. There are also many ways to express “urination” and “defecation”， such as， to go to the bathroom/ restroom/ powder room， to do one’s business， to answer nature’s call. .

There are other expressions. For instance， I have to retire for a moment. / I would like to be excused. Interrogative sentences can also be used: Where is the restroom? Where can I wash my hands? Ladies can say， “I’d like to add some makeup.” in order to avoid the awkwardness.

3.3. Disguise

Opposite to the positive influences of euphemism， there are some different sayings about it. Some people condemn euphemisms as demoralizing because of its hypocrisy while others like Hilaire Belloc consider them a ‘psychological necessity”[18]. One of the most important reasons is that euphemism is used to conceal some scandalous behaviors and crimes. Therefore， euphemism can also bring about the negative influences， which are embodied in the following two aspects according to its concealing function:

3.3.1. The euphemisms for the requirements of politics and war.

Because of the requirements of politics and war， the British and American politicians used some euphemisms to conceal the internal truth， and cheat the public. For example， the “Water Gate” is called “scenario” [19]. Some American writers criticized that these euphemisms created from the “Water Gate” were demoralizing and hypocritical. “Time” even said directly， “These euphemisms all tell it like it isn’t.” [20] The person who steals the information is called “plumber”; The person who is against government is often called “dissidents”; American and British people name “riot” as “disturbance” or “disorder”; “strike” is called “walk-out， down tools， industrial action or industrial dispute”; “economic crises” is called “recession” or “depression”. In the aspect of military affair， “the number of the dead” is called “body count”; “aggression” is called “pre-emptive action” or “involvement”; “rout” is called “phased withdrawal”、“strategic withdrawal”、“light and scattered action” or “break off contact with enemy”. The euphemisms for “to kill” are often called “to take care of， to dispose of， to remove， to rub out， to puff out， to put away， to touch off etc.” “U.S. overseas military employment” is called “American presence”; “civilian casualties” is called “collateral damage”; “bombing and blasting” is called “softening up the resistance”. People seldom mention “nuclear weapons”， but “an anti-personnel weapon”. “Non-nuclear weapon” is called “a conventional weapon”. American media called their invasion to Haiti by their marines “an incident”， called the investigation of American airplanes in Russian territorial air space “an over flight”. We can see the concealing function of euphemisms becomes the needs of the struggle， the tool of cheating people.

3.3.2. The euphemisms for crime

Crime is also a very sensitive topic. The judge can say， “I hereby sentence you to five years in prison.” While the families and friends of the criminal are likely to use the euphemistic expression， such as “to send to the big house， to send up the river， to be living at the government’s expense.” “juvenile delinquents” is a euphemism for “young criminals”; “prison” is called “correctional center”; “burglary” is called “surreptitious entry”; “rape” is called “criminal assault”; “the officer’s act of stealing or embezzling” is called “They misuse public funds.” “Death penalty” is called “capital punishment”.

3.4. The countries’ names as euphemism

In English， there is another special euphemistic expression. That is to use other countries’ names instead of some harsher or more offensive words. The appearance of these euphemisms is mostly because of the historic and cultural reasons. For instance， because French had ruled Britain， British people like to make fun of the French. They called “syphilis” “the French disease”. “French letter” is a euphemism for “condom”; “abortive pill” is called “French lunar pill”; “pornographic novels/prints” is called “French novels (prints)”. It seems that the French does all the bad things. In 17th century， the war between Britain and Dutch also led to a lot of anti-Dutch words， including euphemisms. “Prostitute” is called “Dutch widow”; “commit suicide” is called “Dutch act/cure”; “Dutch courage” is an “artificial courage”; “Dutch cheer” is a euphemism for “liquor”. It was said that the Dutch often drank some liquor to build up their courage. Besides French and Dutch， Britain also makes fun of other countries. “Condom” has other euphemistic expressions in terms of country’s name， such as Spanish letter， American letter， and Italian letter. “Abortive pill” is also called “Portuguese female pill”; “Russian roulette” is a euphemism for “to intend to commit suicide”; “Mexican raise. Irish promotion” means “to be dismissed”; “Egyptian physical training” means “to sleep at daytime”; “Chinese” is also included in this usage， and it refers to a kind of “heroin”. “Chinese white” is a euphemism for “spirited heroin”; “Chinese red” also refers to “heroin”. In a word， the British and the American relate a lot of offensive things with other countries’ names. That is why “exotic” has the meaning of “erotic”. “Exotic club” became the “striptease night club”; “exotic dancer” became the “go-go dancer”. Besides English， other western countries also have such euphemistic phenomena. In fact， it is Linguistic Chauvinism.

4. Conclusion

Euphemism appears with false appearance， and exerts a subtle influence on exposing the truth. That is to use the neutral or pleasant words to express some awkward or offensive contents. As to the English learners， we should not only pay attention to its application on appropriate occasions， but to its influences. Its active functions can coordinate the interpersonal relationships， release the contradictions and avoid the conflicts. The negative functions are to confound right and wrong， beautify the shameful behaviors and conceal the essence. Language itself has not the class character， but different people， political parties and countries can consider it a tool to serve for them. That is why someone named euphemisms as “comfortable words” or “cosmetic words”. In daily life， we should pay attention to the influences that the active and negative functions of euphemisms bring us， and keep the negative functions from corrupting our thoughts.

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篇6

［关键词］微课程;大学英语;设计与应用

新技术的快速发展在教育领域引发了一系列的变革，大学英语课堂正需要打破传统格局，建立一种新型的高效、便捷、轻松的教育和学习模式，而微课程的出现和发展为提高大学英语课堂效率提供了契机。本文通过对微课程的特点和优势进行分析，探索了微课程在大学英语教学中的设计和应用的新途径。

一、大学英语的教学现状

通常情况下，学生在高中毕业时已进行了十多年的英语学习，在词汇和语法上有了相当程度上的积累，对于基本的英语语法和语言知识有了一定的掌握，已经具备了基本的听说读写的能力，因此，当学生进入大学学习时，如果大学英语教学模式依然延续高中围绕英语词汇和语法进行的英语教学模式来展开，将很难满足当今知识技术日益革新的社会对于大学毕业生的基本要求。同时，在大学英语教学实践中发现，不同专业的大学生英语学习的特点不同，大学英语课程需要考虑到不同专业学生的需求，这对授课教师的专业特长和学术能力，以及教材的选择方面提出了很大的挑战。而此时，微课的出现以其本身的特点和优势，为创建大学英语教学的新模式提供了条件。

二、微课程教学模式的理论探索

1．微课程的定义

关于微课程的涵义，国内外专家没有一个确切统一的说法。美国戴维•彭罗斯将微课程称为“知识脉冲(KnowledgeBurst)”，它与相关讨论与课后练习联系起来，会取得与传统长时间授课模式相同的教学效果。总结国内外观点，微课程的定义是指按照新课程标准及教学实践要求，以教学视频为主要载体，录制时长大约5～10分钟的有关教学重难点、考点、疑点等的简短视频，反映教师在课堂教学过程中针对某个知识点或教学环节而开展教与学活动的各种教学资源有机组合。这种微视频的反复使用，不但可以满足大学生们个性化的需求，而且对教师们相互交流教学资源也大有裨益。

2．微课程的特点

作为一种新兴的现代教学模式，微课程与日益更新的电子信息技术结合，实现了教育技术和媒体资源的共享，具有短小精悍，重点突出，针对性强，制作简单，使用灵活方便等特点。首先，微课程的时间较短，时长约为5～10分钟，下载保存方便，可以使学生利用零散的时间进行学习，方便学生在注意力相对集中的时间内高效率地学习。其次，微课程教学主题明确，内容精细。微课通常是针对某个特定的知识点而展开的，内容精炼，针对性强，方便学生理解和掌握。第三，微课程的教学模式有助于学生自主学习能力的提高，增加师生间的互动交流。学生可以不限时间、地点反复地使用微课视频进行学习，教师能够准确掌握学生学习的不足，针对性地进行辅导，极大地提高了学生学习的成就感和自信心。此外，微课程还有制作简单、生动有趣，以及方便教师交流等特点，这就使得微课教学迅速地风靡全世界。

3．微课程在大学英语教学应用中体现出的优势

传统的英语教学模式主要是以教师讲授为主，知识多且繁杂，学生在学习中处于被动状态，注意力很难集中。微课程这种全新的教学模式不仅可以让师生共同参与，体验微课教学模式的优势，而且可以促使教师在教学过程中不断完善教学方式。微课程在大学英语教学中较之于传统教学模式有很大的优势，具体体现在以下几个方面:第一，教学内容更加精炼，更有针对性。微课视频的内容都是教师根据整体的教学大纲进行整理、归纳剔除了冗长多余的内容后浓缩的精华，具备很强的代表性，能够在很大程度上提高学生学习英语的效率。第二，教师与学生的互动性大大提升。借助微课平台，学生可以随时随地就视频中的难点和问题与教师进行线上的交流与互动，方便教师及时解决学生的问题，纠正口语上的错误，这在一定程度上提高了学生的英语水平。第三，解除了传统英语课堂对学生学习的时空限制。传统教学主要局限于课堂，微课教学模式使学习的地点不再受到限制，教师在完成微课视频的制作后将视频上传到网络，而学生则可以随时随地用电脑或手机学习到英语知识。

三、微课程教学模式在大学英语教学中的设计与应用

1．微课教学视频的收集与制作

在制作微视频前，教师首先要先明确教学内容和目标，要结合学生实际的学习能力和水平围绕教学主题来设计微课教学设计方案。在确定主题后，要收集与主题相关的素材来完善教学方案，收集的素材可以包括图片、视频和影视资料等，然后将资源进行整合归纳，尽可能更多地突出教学内容的重点、难点，剔除冗长多余的内容，制作出少于20分钟的视频。教师在制作ppt时要注意设计简单明了，编排有序，片头要呈现出微课主要信息，前几十秒的时间做情景导入，最好伴有几个启发式的问题以激发学生兴趣，引起学生的思考。教师在制作视频时，需将短小精悍的微课程视频做到内容精炼，生动有趣，这样才能达到最佳教学效果。微课视频的时长虽然短少，但不能因此而降低视频的教学质量。

2．课前视频的

教师在编辑视频时尽量使用比较常见的视频格式，避免学生视频无法接收的情况，也便于学生下载观看。同时，还要添加一些与课程相关的重点批注和讲解，以及视频相关的课后作业等，布置的课后作业要围绕着微课视频的教学重点、难点，这样有助于学生熟练地运用微课程所学的内容，同时又要带有启发性，能够培养学生的兴趣。在微课程开始之前，要指导学生按照微课程的教学任务进行课前预习，只有这样才能在课堂上达到良好的学习效果。

3．课堂的教学活动

课堂教学中，学生不再是被动地接受教学知识，而是主动地参与到课程的学习中，有目的、有针对性地学习，微课程的优势就在于能够利用图片、影像、声音、文本等多种方式来刺激学生视觉、听觉、触觉、感觉等多种感官，将原本枯燥无趣的书本知识转变为一个生动、形象的学习场景，从而达到激发学生潜能，迅速掌握课文内容的效果。教师可利用微课教学资源，进行“看图说话”或“看图配音”等情景活动，使课堂变得生动有趣，提升学生在情景中灵活运用语言的能力，增加学生对英语学习的兴趣，还要针对学生的特点，进行个性化教学。教师可以在视频之外补充板书、flash、word文档等其他形式的教学方式，也可以留给学生适当的时间进行小组讨论，教师从旁辅助指导。教师可以针对微课平台上学生的疑难问题有针对性地讲解，找到学生学习中的薄弱之处，提升课堂教学的效率。

4．课后总结与互动交流

在微课教学结束后，学生可以就课堂上没有弄懂的问题在微课程平台上与教师进行在线咨询，不但可以更扎实地掌握课堂所学内容，同时也提升了学生的反思和总结能力。而教师则要注意观察学生微课任务的完成情况，以观测学生在大学英语微课教学中的实际效果，当然教师可以建立一个学生微课程视频学习情况一览表，并不定期地对学生学习视频的情况进行摸底考察，这样可以有效地督促某些自律性差的学生，并将学习情况进行分析总结，建立有针对性的微课教学学习情况数据库，及时有针对性地对这部分学生辅助指导，督促学生进行学习方法的合理调整。教师也可通过调查问卷等方式了解学生的需求，邀请学生也参与到微课程的设计当中，在线对微课程的设计发表观点和意见，教师可以根据学生课堂表现、听课效果反馈和学生意见进行总结反思，修改微课程的设计方案，使微课程的学习更加贴近学生的需要，从而达到事半功倍的效果。

综上所述，在大学英语课堂中使用微课教学模式是可行的，这一教学模式可以有效提高该课程的教学效率，弥补传统课堂教学的不足之处。这使学生成为学习的主体，调动了学生的主观能动性，激发了学生对大学英语教学的学习兴趣，并推动个性化学习真正应用于教学实践。微课程教学模式在大学英语教学中的设计与应用具有很强的实践性和先进性，虽然在我国还处于初步探索阶段，但是随着对微课程教学的深入探讨和研究，必将促进我国大学英语教学水平更上新台阶。

作者:马文佳 单位:佳木斯大学

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［1］李季．基于微课程教学模式下的大学英语教学策略研究［J］．海外英语，2015(12):49－53．

［2］闫易乾．微课程在大学英语教学中的应用［J］．教改探索，2015(8):68．

［3］欧阳志群．微课对大学英语教学改革的启示［J］．高教学刊，2015(15):85－88．

［4］仇慧．基于翻转课堂模式下的大学英语教学的研究———以中国文化课程为例［D］．东北石油大学，2014．

篇7

关键词：成人英语学习；学习者；语境创设；应对方法

1引言

随着社会的进步和社会经济的全球化化发展，英语逐渐成为国际交流中的最常用的语言，不论是在政治、经济或者文化的交流中都体现出了巨大的应用价值。每一种外语语言的学习都是对于人们都是一个新的挑战，涉及文化、习惯等多种因素，是一个较为复杂的认知过程，英语的学习也是如此，学习英语的兴趣、目的以及方法等都会对学习者的英语学习效果造成不同程度的影响。

2成人英语学习现状分析

当下，成人英语学习者学习英语的主要目的和动机大多是为了获得一种交流的工具，以此来求的更高的学历和职业，对于英语的学习有着较强的功利性和现实性，将学习、掌握英语作为一项提高其综合能力和素质，使其成为综合性人才的有力手段。许多成人英语学习者往往想通过学习英语来使其更好的适应社会的发展需要，解决生活和求职过程中竞争问题和待遇问题，他们更注重英语的实际应用价值，以求在工作中更好的承担相关的任务，获得更好的生存和发展。然而，英语不只是一种满足个体之间交流需要的工具，更有助于文化的交流和沟通，这就需要一个特定的语境。成人英语的学习需要创设一个能够促使不同文化得以共享的语境，并且在学习过程中积累一定的英语语言知识，如此才能在学习过程中提高学习者的英语应用能力。语言产生于人们的生产和生活中，通过在生产生活中反复的实践和应用使其更加成熟，因此语言的学习需要创设一定的语境成为学习语言的规律，在没有语境的语言学习是违背学习规律的，英语的学习同样需要创设浓厚的语境。然而，目前的成人英语学习最大的问题就是缺乏对特定语言环境的创设，英语的学习是一个注重听、说、读、写等训练和英语应用能力提高的过程，不像其他科目的学习，并不能单纯的从书本上获得知识和应用技巧。不管是对哪种语言的学习，不单单是对语言知识的记忆，更要在特定的环境中通过身体的各个器官来应用语言，体验语言的自身的魅力，并在大脑中进行语境的构建，逐渐将语言融会贯通，是自己掌握自由使用语言的能力。故而，在成人英语学习的过程中要创建一个有利于英语语言文化交流的环境，提供给学习者锻炼语言应用能力的机会。

3成人英语学习语境创设的应对方法

语言的学习离不开语境的创设，语言的交流必须以一定的语境为依托，不论是哪种语言的学习若缺乏语言环境就会成为一种只具有逻辑性的符号，无法真正的体现沟通交流的价值，因为任何没有语境的交际是不具意义的，所以成人英语学习过程中语境的创设是十分必要的。语境的创设直接决定着语言学习的效果，一般来说，语境分为自然语言环境和课堂语言环境，自然语言环境主要是来自生活中的家庭、社会以及学校环境，课堂语言环境则是在语言教学过程中老师与学生以及学生与学生在交流互动中所形成的语言环境。自然语言环境和课堂语言环境都能够使成人英语学习者在学习过程中有更多的空间和时间来锻炼和提高自己的英语语言应用能力。

3.1自然语境的创设

自然语言环境包括家庭环境、社会环境以及校园环境，首先家庭语言环境是指在生活创设英语学习环境，例如在厨房、卧室、客厅以及家用电器和生活用品上贴上自己制作的英语标签，在居家生活中，随时随地学习英语，而且这种语言环境的创设还能增加英语学习的趣味性；再比如，可以和周围具有一定英语基础的人进行日常的交流和学习，自己创设英语学习环境，锻炼自己的英语语言应用能力，把说英语当做一种习惯；其次，社会语言环境的创设可以通过英语广播、英语视频等来进行英语的学习，在听和说的潜移默化中获得语感，在反复的听正确朗读和自己朗读的对比过程中使自己的语音和语调都变得更加动听和优美；最后，校园语言环境的创设可以通过举办校园英语广播训练和英语演讲比赛等方法进行，学习者在教师老师的指导下编写英语广播内容，例如可以将寻物启事、寻人启事、歌曲、新闻等内容编写成英语文章，定期举办广播训练，并形成一定的竞赛形式，组织学生开展英文期刊、杂志等的阅读活动然后举行朗诵比赛，在比赛中使学生的口语能力和语言组织能力得到提高，还可以在学校开展例如英语角、英语交流会等来提高学习者的英语实际应用能力。

3.2课堂英语语境的创设

课堂英语语言环境的创设要充分利用多媒体以及其他教学资源，将远程和面授教学相结合，在教学过程中始终以凸显学生的教学主体地位，提高学生的学习主动性和积极性为语境创设目的，也有助于提高成人英语的教学质量。

4总结

综上所述，成人英语学习中语境的创设十分重要，而英语语言环境的创设可以从社会、生活、校园、课堂教学等多个方面去采取相应的措施，成人学生对英语语言的学习不仅要积累一定的语言知识，还要认清语言学习的特点，在合理的语言环境和学习氛围中获得最佳的英语学习效果。

参考文献：

[1] 朱京，孙倚娜.语块知识与成人英语听力水平的相关性研究.《苏州大学学报（哲学社会科学版）》.2010年4期

篇8

关键词：导学案；设计；应用

中图分类号：G632文献标识码：B文章编号：1672-1578（2015）06-0125-01

"导学案"是一种理念的转变。它强调了"学"而不是强调"教"，强调学习什么，怎么去学。导学案以单元整体设计为指导思想，由单元中的SectionA和SectionB加上Reading部分组成，每个Section分为导学与固学两部分，导学部分由学习目标、课前预习、学法指导组成，教师精心设计，注重导引，让学生的学路与教师的教路有效磨合，助推着学生的学习力的提升；固学部分由基础性知识、规律性知识和拓展性知识组成，让优等生看到挑战，中等生感到激励，学困生备受鼓励。导学案的设计依据《义务教育英语课程标准》（2011年版），体现三维目标，即"知识与技能"、"过程与方法"、"情感、态度与价值观"的有机统一，融为一体。

阅读课是初中教学的棘手课，开课教师在选课时都想避开。为了突破老师们的心理障碍，我们挑选了这样的课型进行研修。

1.学习目标的制定

学习目标的制定对具体的学习行为起导向、引领的作用，是教学评价的标准和依据。学习目标的制定坚持主体性、操作性和层次性原则。主体性即从学生的角度出发，体现生本；操作性即目标具体、明确、可测量、可评价；层次性即目标的设置重视差异和学情，体现因材施教。我们的学习目标由知识目标、能力目标和情感目标组成。以新目标英语八年级（下）Unit 9 Reading：Have you ever been to Singapore？为例，本课词汇量大，对学生的要求也高，我们在知识目标中把词汇分为核心词汇和词汇两部分，核心词汇是学生必须掌握和应用的词汇，它们在固学中出现率高，写作中也会用上，出现在词汇中的单词或词组按学生的程度有的只要求会认读，会理解，在固学中出现时能查阅完成。能力目标也分层要求分层达标。（见附件导学）

2.课前预习设计

导学案的有效应用是促进课堂教学顺利进行的重要途径和方法之一，在整个教学中具有强大的支架功能和作用。建构主义认为，当学习者遇到较复杂的学习任务时，教师应为其提供一种概念框架（conceptual framework），将复杂的学习任务加以分解，引导学习者对所学知识的理解不断深入，促进学习者知识意义的建构和相关能力的形成和发展。导学案就是这种概念框架，即教学支架的表现形式之一。教师在教学中就是要循序渐进，引导学生沿着这一支架逐步攀升，不断实现并创造新的"最近发展区"。所以教师在课前预习中坚持问题化、层次化原则。所设的问题没有把谜底一下端给学生而是巧妙地把知识点、能力点转变为探索性的问题点，问题看似与课文相关又有所拓展，从而激发学生主动思考，逐步培养学生的探究精神以及对教材的分析、归纳、演绎的能力，使学生意识到：要解决教师设计的问题不看书不行，看书不看详细也不行；光看书不思考不行，思考不深不透也不行。让学生真正从教师设计的问题中找到解决问题的方法，学会看书，学会自学。层次性原则即将难易不一的学习内容处理成有序的、阶梯性的、符合各层次学生认知规律的课前预习，让每个学生都学有所得，最大限度地调动学生的学习积极性，提高学生学习的自信心。

3.学法指导的设计

学法指导与课前预习具有异曲同工之处。主要是温故知新，即以学生已有的知识结构作为切入点实现以旧引新的目标。应用联想、分类、问题等形式激活学生的求知欲；针对重难点词汇、语法等的辨析、解析；预测并提供固学中需要应用的词汇、句子等。（见附件导学）此外，提倡在学法指导中提供一些好记好用好学的"口诀"或"顺口溜"帮助学生记忆所学的内容，扫清学生学习中的拦路虎。

4.固学部分的设计

固学部分是落实知识的重要保障，是将课堂的教学活动内化为学生自己的知识和能力的关键性环节，对课堂教学起检测、反拨作用。主要由基础性知识、规律性知识和拓展性知识组成。基础性知识为学生自主学习掌握理解的单词、词组；规律性知识为需要通过训练进行掌握和巩固的句型、语法、段落；拓展性知识为需要思考探究的篇章和大小作文，有阅读文的话可以选择主题类似或结构相似的文章让学生进行扩展阅读训练。（见附件固学）固学是导学的推进器，将课堂的短时记忆转化为长时记忆，将课前课内的思考延伸、升华为课外的思考，并及时进行有针对性的反馈与矫正。

5.应该注意的问题

义务教育《英语课程标准》（2011年版）实施建议中指出：本标准以学生"能用英语做事情"的描述方式设定各级目标要求，旨在强调培养学生的综合语言运用能力。各种语言知识的呈现和学习都应从语言使用的角度出发，为提升学生 "用英语做事情"的能力服务。教师要通过创设接近实际生活的各种语境，采用循序渐进的语言实践活动，以及各种强调过程与结果并重的教学途径和方法，如任务型语言教学途径等，培养学生用英语做事情的能力。可见在学生的语言学习和实践活动中，教师的作用十分重要。英语教学目标的实现，并非一个导学案能够全部解决的，特别是创设接近实际生活的各种语境并用英语获取、处理和传递信息，表达个人观点和感受，是一项实践性很强的活动，教师必要的点拨、指导、示范，师生互动、生生互动都应当是重要的教学形式。

导学案建构了以学生为中心，教师为主导的教学方式，避免了盲目使用资料和题海战术，使教学更具针对性、有效性，突出重点，提高课堂教学效率，从而达到减负提质的效果；导学案不仅调动了学生学习的主动性，让学生学会了学习，同时也促进教师的专业发展，催生了学科教学研究共同体，形成学科教学文化和精神，推动了学校的发展。我们将在实践中不断反思、不断地丰富和完善。

参考文献：

[1]中华人民共和国教育部制定. 义务教育英语课程标准（2011年版）[M].北京：北京师范大学出版社，2012.1

篇9

关键词：部份

Abstract: some question thought-provoking appear in the design for partially prestressed frame structure, such as the choice of design plan, how to assure the ductility of frame, which shape of prestressed curve can bring fully efficiency of prestressed and how to choose the best connection form of beam under long span, large working load. These question mentioned above will be solved through the following calculation and analysis.

Key words: partially prestressed; bearing stress; bending moment.

中图分类号： TU355 文献标识码： A 文章编号：

1 工程概况

长沙劳动广场某接待中心工程为四星级宾馆，地上18层框架剪力墙结构，地下2层，其中墙裙为3层预应力框架结构，平面为31.2mx7.8m，柱距7.8m，层高4.5m，大跨度、大空间，不仅可以满足餐饮、健身、娱乐等多功能要求，而且布置灵活，更显高档宾馆的豪华气派。起平面布置见图1。

2. 结构设计

1 方案选择

(1)非预应力混凝土单向框架承重方案，当满足强度要求挠度控制l0/300，裂缝小于0.3mm时，梁高需1.2m，占较大的空间，不够美观。

(2)非预应力混凝土井字梁方案，长宽比为2.5，结构单向受力（实际为单向密肋梁），梁高也要到1.0m，这一方案结构自重大，施工亦很麻烦。

(3)采用小柱网结构，要影响大开间的使用功能。

(4)鉴于以上几点，决定采用部分预用力框架。由于预应力与非预应力筋混合配筋，兼有预应力与钢筋混凝土两者的优点，可以跨越较大空间，较好地控制使用载作用下裂缝和饶度，又有较好地延性和能量吸收，有效地抵抗地震的影响

预应力大梁截面尺寸为350x700，与非预应力方案相比节约了500mm高的空间，因而深受建设单位的欢迎。大梁采用4束预应力钢绞线（即2-6Фj15+2-5Фj15），钢绞线强度为1570N/mm2 。屋顶设有游泳池，菏载较大，梁截面为500x900，配6束刚绞线（即6-6Фj15），其余没有游泳池的地方大梁截面为350x900，配4束刚绞线。

2.2 预计计算

2.2.1 预应力曲线的确定

如果预应力曲线与外荷的弯矩图想一致，就能充分地发挥预应力筋的作用，根据PKPM电算结果，弯矩包络图中正、负弯矩的交接点（即反弯点）均在2—2.5m之间，因此，将反弯点设在2.4m处，这样会更符合受力情况，而整个曲线是由4个半抛物线组成，图2。

2.2.2 关于次弯矩的问题

预应力作用与超静定结构引起的变形受到约束而产生次弯矩。根据本工程计算结果，在梁的跨中截面上，外荷载产生的弯矩图与次弯矩图，符号相同，组合后弯矩增大，次弯矩起了不利于梁的作用，而支座处外荷载与次弯矩的符号相反，组合后弯矩减小，次弯矩起了有利于梁的作用。计算中还可以看出跨中所产生的次弯矩越占外和荷弯矩的12%~20%,而支座产生的有利影响约占10%左右，这个比率还是比较大的，因此，在承载能力极限状态计算时必须加以考虑。

2.2.3 跨中翼缘取值问题

为了使大梁有足够的延性，能有效的抵抗地震力的影，除了控制预应力度外，还控制了受压区高度和梁有效高度之比不大于0.35（即x《0.35h0）对于跨中的有利条件，但因次弯矩减小了弯矩故而也顺利通过了。这里值得提出的是跨中是跨中翼缘取值问题，在现行规范中现浇楼盖非预应力混凝土梁的有效翼缘宽度是取b0=b+12h1 ，本工程也采用此值，但根据已建工程的实测，有的工程取b0=b+20h1 或 b=b+s0 /2(s0为梁间净距)。希望修订规范时，尽快反映预应力梁的翼缘宽度取值，这样能更符合预应力的情况，又可达到节约的目的。

2.2.4 框架刚接与铰接的问题

大跨度、大荷载的框架，如顶层有游泳的大梁，是采用刚接好，还是采用铰接好，意见不一致。有人认为铰接既可避免柱弯矩过大，配筋过多，又可发挥跨中抵抗弯矩的能力，但经过实际计算，表明屋面梁的刚量过大，比刚接多用50%左右的钢材，故而节点乃用刚接，虽然刚接柱要多用钢材，但2倍的柱长仍然比梁跨小得多，也就是说，柱内多用钢材比梁内多用钢材要经济的多；当然，如若配筋量过大，还可以考虑采用预应力柱的方法，这样可以大大减少柱内配筋量，提高柱的刚度。

通过工程设计，接触了很多问题，获得了较好的效益，该工程已顺利建成，使用效果良好。

参考文献：

[1] 吕西林，高层建筑结构，武汉工业大学出版社

[2]一级结构注册工程师必备规范汇编（2003年修订缩印本）中国建筑工业出版社

[3] 藤智明，钢精混凝土基本构件（第二版），清华大学出版社

[4] 卢盛澄，承 宇，鲁兆红 预应力框架应用中几个问题的探讨 建筑科学研究论文集。

篇10

英语课堂教学活动是学生学习和掌握英语的主要途径，其优劣程度直接关系到学生学习效果的好坏，从而影响着英语教学目的的实现。因此，为了达到教学的最优化效果，必须要求教师事先精心设计好课堂教学活动，体现出教学的科学性、艺术性与实用性。

1.英语课堂教学活动设计是顺利完成课堂教学目的，提高课堂教学效果的需要。“凡事预则立，不预则废”教学活动设计是整个教学工作中不可或缺的重要环节。教师要依据教学大纲的要求、教材的具体内容、语言的学习规律、学生的学习水平和已达到的语言能力程度，对课堂教学活动深入构思、精心设计、整体把握、合理布局，研究和掌握科学的教学原则，使用诸如教育学、心理学等理论，始终贯穿于英语课堂教学的每个环节中，并正确合理采用具体实施方法，比如小组活动(Group Work 或Pair Work)、话题的选择(Topic Choice)、表演(Acting)等，来提高学生在单位时间内听、说、读、写的功效，获得理想的教学效果。

2．英语课堂教学活动设计是英语学科教学特点的需要。英语科不同于其他学科，英语学科的一个显著特点就是实践性强。只有通过大量的活动和训练，才能很好地掌握和运用，正如杂技演员，他们纯熟的技艺都是苦练的结果。英语课的学习也是一样，必须有足够的练习，学生才能逐步领会所学的知识和规则，并能逐渐自如地运用。其实践性的特点，决定了它的课堂教学活动形式的灵活多样，也只有通过丰富的课堂教学活动，才能使学生掌握听、说、读、写的基本技能，从而熟练应用英语进行交际。而这些都有赖于设计好的教学活动，需要教师倾注心血，在条理性、趣味性、逻辑性和科学性方面下功夫。

3．通过课堂教学活动设计，不断提高英语教师自身的教学能力的需要。英语课作为中学教育的基础课程，有其不同一般的特殊性。素质教育观下的英语教学，对教师提出了更高的要求。其教学特征在于：多元的课堂教学目标；适度“开放”的教学内容；“任务式”的学习活动；多样的组织形式和变化的角色关系；互动式的课堂话语；分层次的学习任务和要求；和谐均衡的教学活动设置；健康愉悦的情感氛围。为了达到上述要求，在课堂教学活动设计中，教师就需要查阅资料，博览群书，犹如蜜蜂采花酿蜜，不断充实丰富自己，最后厚积薄发，落实到设计方案中，这样上课时才能有备无患，得心应手，才能为提高课堂教学质量提供了现实可能性，最终体现素质教育所提倡的注重教学实质、淡化教学形式的根本要求。

二、英语课堂教学活动设计的依据

1．课堂教学活动设计，首先应该依据英语教学大纲。大纲是中学英语教学和改革的纲领性文件，它提出了英语教学的目的、任务、范围、体系、教学进度和对教学方法的基本要求，是我们进行教学活动设计、教学改革、教学评估、考试命题的依据，是衡量我们教学工作的准绳，课堂教学活动设计时必须全面、系统、透彻地掌握大纲的实质性内容，并贯彻到整个教学活动中去。因此，我们要认真钻研教材，明确教学目的、任务和要求。根据英语教学特点，在设计时要把学生置于特定的英语环境之中，通过大量、反复的听、说、读、写训练，通过一定的语言实际活动，立足于现实，重视情感心灵交流，灵活运用，大胆创新，锐意改革，淘汰那些传统式的教学方法，想方设法地把枯燥无味的语言材料转变成生动活泼的活动内容。

2．英语课堂教学活动设计，应依据教材内容。课堂教学活动设计的过程，就是教师对教材内容熟悉、理解的过程，就是对教学目的、教学原则和教学方法理解分析和准备实施的过程，所以我们应努力做到吃透教材内容，理解和掌握教材的内在联系，组织好教材，安排好课时，抓住教材中的关键点，突出重点，突破难点，设计好课堂教学活动。

3．课堂教学活动设计，应依据本校本班的学生特点。英语教学活动设计不仅是设计教材，设计方法，更重要的是设计如何调动学生的学习积极性，如何挖掘学生的内在潜力。作为英语教师，对自己学生的知识水平、接受能力、学习态度、兴趣爱好、个性特征、学习基础等都要有全面的了解，以便根据大多数学生的实际情况，确定教学的起点、难度、深度和广度，根据学生个性特征和个别差异，因人而异地进行教学和辅导，同时，在设计新的教学活动时，还要重视信息的反馈，使之更适应学生知识水平和接受能力，使教师的主观愿望与学生的客观要求趋于统一。

三、英语课堂教学活动设计的模式实例

1．语言结构呈现的模式。即向学生呈现新的语言项目，激活学生接受新语言信息的认知状态。下面以牛津初中英语7AUnit 4 中的Welcome to the unit为例。首先我们需要分析教材。本单元的功能项目是“食物”(Food)，涉及的话题有：谈论最喜欢的食物、饮料、水果；进而可以了解中外饮食习惯和文化方面的差异，为之后Reading中的有关Food and lifestyles 内容做好准备。需要用到的语言项目有：有关食物、饮料等词汇；可数、不可数名词量的表达；句型“What’s your favourite food/drink? What would you like? How many... are there?”等。本单元的教学目的是培养学生掌握与饮食有关的语言基础知识和基本技能，并能运用语言进行交际活动的能力。因此可以先向学生提问：“What things do we eat/drink?”并用实物或图片启发引导学生说出已学过的食物、饮料名词，同时引出新词并熟悉其音、形、义。教师此时应注意有意识地分出可数和不可数名词，为下一步做铺垫。然后用话题：“What’s your favourite food/drink?”激发学生兴趣和交际动机，进行信息交流，从而熟练掌握有关词汇。在此基础上，再用“What would you like for breakfast/lunch/supper?”来引出量的表达。这是学生的难点，必须通过足够使学生明了意思的实物或图片以及大量有真实意义的操练来训练学生准确流利地学会表达，包括口头、笔头表达。最后还可用“How many...”句型来强化这项技能。

2．情景对话教学的模式。这是学生对新语言项目的信息进行加工的过程，也就是练习。有了第一步的扎实的语言结构基础，我们就可以通过教学课本中的几个情景对话，把新的语言结构置于一个具体的情境中，显示语言功能，从中学会运用。