拉撒路范文

导语：如何才能写好一篇拉撒路，这就需要搜集整理更多的资料和文献，欢迎阅读由公务员之家整理的十篇范文，供你借鉴。

篇1

入选理由：被形容为“欧洲的耶路撒冷”，三种对立的宗教并存，拥有多座现成的战争纪念碑。

候选城市：西贡（Saigon）、圣弗朗西斯科（San Francisco）、圣马力诺（San Marino）、圣地亚哥（Santiago）、圣保罗（Sao Paulo）、首尔（Seoul）、上海（Shanghai）、设拉子（Shiraz）、新加坡（Singapore）、斯科普里（Skopje）、索非亚（Sofia）、斯德哥尔摩（Stockholm）、苏伊士（Suez）、悉尼（Sydney）。

波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那共和国，是一个面积只有浙江省一半的欧洲新国家。不过，我乘坐的国际列车从该国北端驶入以后，摇摇晃晃地走了七八个小时，依然没有到达中部的首都萨拉热窝。铁路两侧尽是低矮的山谷和溪流，间或可见清真寺的尖塔露出村头，黄色的砖墙被绿色的庄稼和杂乱的树木环绕着。车上旅客稀少，仅有的几位也因为语言不通而无法交流。黄昏时分，火车终于抵达了目的地。一个严峻的考验随即降临，因为我出门旅行向来不预定旅店。

很快，乘客们便没了踪影，车站广场上只留下一男一女两个中年人，他们都是拉旅客投宿之人。当我发现车站上的游客问讯处已经关门以后，只好把目光转向他们。那位男士颇有气质，且会说较为流利的英语，因此一开始我就被他吸引。而那女人只会说点德语，其外貌酷似前网球明星格拉芙，只是脸上多了一些皱纹。正当我准备跟那位男士去他的旅店时，“格拉芙”突然从包里掏出一个塑料封皮的笔记本。

还没等我反应过来，“格拉芙”已经打开她的笔记本，上面歪歪斜斜地写满了各种语言的文字。原来，这是一本旅客登记簿。我翻到最新的一页，上面居然有头一天登记的一位日本游客的信息。在那一瞬间，我做出了选择，跟着“格拉芙”走了。出门在外，安全总是第一位的。我们一起搭乘沿着河岸行走的唯一的有轨电车，去她在城西的家。当我听到车头铃铛的声音时，两旁的路灯也亮了，我感觉世界突然温暖了许多。

萨拉热窝位于狭窄的特雷贝维奇山谷，城中有一条叫“米利亚茨卡”的河流穿过。附近留有新石器时代的文化遗址，中世纪时，哥特人和斯拉夫人先后来此定居，而随着15世纪后期土耳其人的侵入，萨拉热窝发展成为贸易商人和穆斯林的文化堡垒。不过，来自亚德里亚海边的商人也在此建立了拉丁区。因此，至今这里信仰伊斯兰教的居民仍只有―半。

19世纪中叶，萨拉热窝曾是奥斯曼帝国的行政中心之一，这一地位在奥匈帝国占领期仍保持不变。1914年6月28日，波斯尼亚的塞尔维亚民族主义者普林西普在萨拉热窝刺杀了奥匈帝国皇储斐迪南及其妻子，从而引发了第一次世界大战。战争结束后，波斯尼亚宣布加入南斯拉夫，直到1992年，才再次独立出来。不过，新一轮的内战又因此而爆发。

尽管如此，我脑子里首先想到的却是一部少年时代反复看过的南斯拉夫电影《瓦尔特保卫萨拉热窝》。这部影片讲的是第二次世界大战即将结束时，德国驻巴尔干半岛的部队准备撤退，被瓦尔特领导的游击队拦截的故事。

“格拉芙”住在一套二居室里，家里只有她和母亲两人，客厅里的两张沙发就成为她的出租床。我到达那天，那位日本青年还在，可是由于他不讲英语，我们无法交流。他属于成千上万孤独的日本旅行者之一。

第二天一早，日本青年就背起行囊出发了。他走后，我也起身，在窗台上观察附近的民居。由于种族之间的冲突，塞族人和穆斯林、克族人分居在两侧山坡上。在萨拉热窝，甚至连汽车站也分成两个，以免引发冲突。后来，我来到一座建于16世纪的大清真寺，发现地上跪拜着无数穿着讲究的男男女女。他们用怀疑的眼神看着我这个异乡人，那种目光将我驱赶到了大厅之外。

篇2

通往拉萨的铁路全国只有一条，即青藏铁路。

青藏铁路被誉为"天路"，起于青海省西宁市，途经格尔木市、昆仑山口、沱沱河沿，翻越唐古拉山口，进入西藏自治区安多、那曲、当雄、羊八井、拉萨。

青藏铁路全长1956公里，是重要的进藏路线，被誉为天路，是世界上海拔最高、在冻土上路程最长的高原铁路，是中国新世纪四大工程之一，2013年9月入选"全球百年工程"，是世界铁路建设史上的一座丰碑。

青藏铁路上车站总数共56个，主要车站有西宁站、格尔木站、拉萨站等。

（来源：文章屋网 ）

篇3

这个月，我读了《把铁路修到拉萨去》。这篇文章讲的是西部建设者们在自然环境恶劣的情况下，用智慧和力量克服了一个个世界的难题，创下了世界铁路建设奇迹，就是世界海拔最高隧道——风火山隧道建设的经过。

读完全文，我被铁路工人那种勇于吃苦的精神感动了，他们在建设风火山隧道时，遇到了三种极大的困难：一是冻土层；二是恶劣的天气；三是极度缺氧；面是些困难在铁路工人眼里就像小沙子一样。最终他们克服了寒冷、风雪、雷电等气候，用智慧与力量完成了风火山隧道。

我不禁感叹：青藏铁路真是一条奉献路啊！在海拔5000米的无人区，高寒缺氧，氧气含量不到平原的一半，死神的手就靠近了铁路工人们，而他们牺牲的不仅仅是健康，还随时可能会被死神抓入手中。

妈妈也说：海拔那么高，铁路工人都能这样，我们大家更应该好好学习，让祖国变得更加富强。

五年级:星星点灯00

篇4

关键词：旅游文化街区;功能;演化;八廓街

1.研究背景

刘颂、王雪君认为“旅游文化街区”，又称“文化休闲街区”，它往往是依托街道（区）原有的历史文化特色和在城市功能分区中的作用，赋予一定的文化主题而形成的[1]。笔者认为旅游文化街区是旅游与文化街区相结合的具体表现形式，将文化产业与旅游产业相结合，传承文化街区的历史和文化，拓展文化街区功能在旅游中的作用，促进旅游业的发展。夏健、王勇认为居住性历史文化街区的功能重置要做到“功能保全”，“生活真实延续”，“完善服务功能”三项基本原则[2]。苏静等人认为城市文化街区具有“储存文化，流传文化，创造文化”这三个基本功能[3]。蒋其平等人认为在平常转经道作为交通空间而存在为人们提供正常交通，当举行宗教活动或者有宗教行为时，转经道就完全恢复其宗教职能，并且具有了严格的宗教职能[4]。由此可以看出，八廓街具有两项基本功能：交通功能与宗教功能，笔者认为这也是八廓街的传统功能。拉萨市旅游文化街区八廓街位于围绕大昭寺为中心的市中心，是老城区的重要组成部分，因而八廓街这一旅游文化街区同样具有居住，宗教，民族商业，交通等传统功能。胡海燕、图登克珠等对拉萨市老城区的主要功能进行分析得出：在一千多年的历史发展过程中，老城区逐渐形成了居住，宗教，民族商业，旅游商业等多种社会功能[5]。随着旅游业的发展，八廓街的功能在不断演变，产生了以旅游业为纽带的游憩、休闲、体验，文化等新兴功能。

2.研究对象简介

公元七世纪，法王松赞干布统一青藏高原，定都逻些（即现在的拉萨），先迎娶了尼泊尔尺尊公主，带来了八岁释迦牟尼等身佛像，紧接着迎娶大唐文成公主，带来了十二岁释迦牟尼等身佛像。至此，印度佛教和内地汉传佛教传入青藏高原与本土宗教相融合，形成藏传佛教并在吐蕃迅速发展。在藏传佛教中有很多祈祷方式，如：转经、挂经幡、堆玛尼堆、煨桑等，其中转经是最常见的祈祷方式之一，八廓街汉语意为“中转经道”，即受藏传佛教的影响而形成的。八廓街是藏文的汉语音译，汉语意为“中圈”，引申为“中转经道”。又名八角街，原因是在四川的美食调料中，有一种叫八角的调料，在拉萨居住的汉族人中四川人占了很大比例，而四川人对“廓”与“角”的发音很相似，久而久之，又名之为“八角”。它在历史上曾是拉萨古城的中心，是拉萨历史的见证。

3.八廓街的传统功能

3.1 宗教功能

大昭寺原是松赞干布供奉其尼泊尔裔赤尊公主带来的释迦牟尼八岁等身佛像所建。后来唐朝金城公主嫁入吐蕃，将文成公主进藏时带来的释迦牟尼十二岁等身佛像移入大昭寺。在藏传佛教向心宇宙和转经这种特殊的祈祷方式的影响下，在拉萨逐渐形成了古老的三条转经道，分别是囊廓、八廓、林廓。其中八廓街在2009年被授予首批“中国历史文化名街”荣誉称号，也是享誉国内外的名街。受藏传佛教的影响，在八廓街行走有着明确的方向，即围绕着大昭寺以顺时针方向旋转。即使你是初到拉萨的游客，看到这样的情景，你也会情不自禁的随着这股人流按顺时针方向行走。综上所述，从八廓街的产生到今天，宗教功能一直保持着不变。

3.2 居住功能

在吐蕃王朝时期，八廓街就有了居住功能。公元6世纪，吐蕃赞普松赞干布在决定修建大昭寺后，为了亲自监督工程的进展，他率领伦臣大相和嫔妃们住到了汤窝湖附近。为了表达对王的尊敬人们在湖的北面，东面，东南和西南四处修建了房舍，供松赞干布和臣相嫔妃们住，这是八廓街最早的四个宫殿，也是八廓街最早的一批建筑[6]。15世纪后，众多佛教信徒迁居大昭寺周围生活，逐渐形成了大量民居、旅馆，后来又逐步发展成为贵族官邸及商人住宅集中之地，如平措康萨、索康、林仓、赤江、邦达仓等，都是有几百年历史的宅院。和平解放以前，八廓街里既有政府的办事机构，又住着贵族，僧人，学者，也住着工匠，铁匠，等艺人和平民[7]。至今，八廓街的居住功能仍未改变。2012年12月拉萨市启动了总投资约15亿元的老城区保护工程，以改善老城区的安全状况和居民生活环境。2013年6月基本竣工，标志着八廓街的基础设施不断完善，为当地居民的居住，生活提供更多的便利。

3.3 传统商贸功能

自古以来，八廓街就是拉萨城的主要商贸中心，而面对现代文明的进程，其商贸市井气息逐渐减弱，但依然可见其传统的商贸功能。八廓街从坐东朝西的大昭寺正门前按顺时针方向，依次有八廓西街、八廓北街、八廓东街、八廓南街。各个方位的街区中商铺分布较多，主要经营具有特色的民族手工艺品与药材，同时也存在一些商铺经营特色小吃、羊毛纺织、服装鞋帽等生意。除此之外，住宿业在八廓街也占有一定的比重，一些家庭旅馆、青年旅社也随处可见。

3.4 交通功能

八廓街的交通功能贯穿整个街区，里面有各方位的小巷与八廓街相连，与外界沟通。在平常，八廓街作为一个交通空间而存在，供人们日常交通使用，但每逢宗教节日，信徒都会在八廓街沿顺时针的方向围绕着大昭寺朝拜，这时，八廓街有着特殊的交通功能。但随着旅游业的发展，八廓街有限的交通空间也不能满足当地居民和游客的需求。

4.八廓街的新兴功能

随着旅游业的发展，八廓街在传统功能的基础上演化出许多新的功能，如游憩、休闲、体验，文化等功能。

4.1 游憩功能

笔者将从游憩空间方面着手来阐述八廓街的游憩功能。吴必虎、董莉娜等人认为城市公共游憩空间是处于城市或者城市近郊的“游憩者可进入的”具有休息、交往、锻炼、娱乐、购物、观光、旅游等游憩功能的开放空间、建筑物及设施[8]。拉萨市经济中心，八廓街是拉萨的游憩中心。到拉萨来的游客，八廓街是必到之处。八廓街具有特色、藏民族特点的碉堡房，传统手工艺品（如藏刀、木碗、藏毯）、女士藏装、以及穿戴藏装时的相关饰品，同时具有完善的基础设施，能够满足游客的旅游需求。由于经济属于跨越型发展经济模式，生产传统藏族手工艺品的生产力比较落后，不能够满足现阶段旅游业发展需求。

4.2 休闲功能

随着社会主义市场经济的发展，竞争越来越激烈，快节奏的生活使大都市的人们超负荷的工作着。正相反，拉萨是中国幸福指数最高的城市，被誉为“幸福拉萨”，地处拉萨市中心的八廓街也是幸福拉萨的重要组成部分。随着旅游业的发展，八廓街的休闲功能日益凸显。笔者将从以下三个方面进行论述：休闲主体的广泛性

在八廓街，除了旅游者以外，还有信徒、当地居民、外来人口、僧人等群体。不同的群体来八廓街的目的不尽相同，但都是八廓街休闲生活的重要组成部分。

休闲方式的异质性

对于朝圣者来说，围绕着大昭寺转八廓街是一种修行;对游客来说，转八廓街是购物、游览、观光、体验;对于当地居民来说，八廓街是一个进行商贸休闲的理想之处。

休闲活动的多样性

在八廓街，你可以欣赏具有雪域高原特色的藏式碉堡房，你可以购买具有当地居民的传统手工艺品，你也可以体验丰富的藏餐文化等等多彩的旅游活动。

4.3 体验功能

需求刺激着消费，同时也引领着消费方向。正因为如此，生产适销对路的产品，与市场需求接轨，是满足多元化消费需求的一方面，但是创新是一个民族进步的灵魂，我们可以换一个角度来想，那就是企业产品去引领消费方向，刺激消费需求。八廓街有丰富的传统旅游资源，在这里，可以体验和感受藏民族的民风、民俗，可以体验藏文化。地道的藏族民风、民俗，独特的藏文化，正是国内、国际游客来所向往的。而目前八廓街的旅游资源并没有充分的得到发挥，只做到根据旅游者的消费需求来生产旅游产品，而没有真正做到生产的旅游产品让消费者去参与、去体验、去感受。笔者认为旅游目的地应该把旅游市场需求为导向和生产的旅游产品引领市场需求并行。

4.4 文化功能

首先，大昭寺是拥有一千三百多年历史的拉萨古城的中心，八廓街的兴起是拉萨城市兴起的起点，因此，八廓街最传统的文化功能就是宗教文化功能，具有明显的藏传佛教特色。其次，八廓街是最具有民族特色的文化街区。在八廓街，除汉族以外，生活着藏族、回族、蒙古族等其他少数民族，其中（各民族所占的比例）在这里，真正体现了“大杂居，小聚居”的民族居住特点。他们在生产、生活、语言、穿着方式等各个方面相互影响，相互渗透。实现了“汉族离不开少数民族，少数民族离不开汉族，少数民族离不开少数民族”的民族大团结。最后八廓街是唯一一条以藏餐为主的，拥有丰富的藏餐美食文化的旅游文化名街。其中（有多少家注册藏餐餐厅，主要经营的藏餐是什么），

5.八廓街传统功能向新兴功能演化的原因分析

夏健、王勇提出在居住性历史文化街区保护和更新中，功能保全是生活真实性延续的载体。[9]笔者认为，八廓街传统功能向新兴功能演化正如矛盾的两个方面，新兴功能离不开传统功能，传统功能也离不开新兴功能，传统功能是新兴功能得以产生和发展的前提和基础，新兴功能是对传统功能的继承和发展。因此，八廓街由传统功能向新兴功能演化的原因有以下三点。

5.1 经济因素

经济发展的要求，由传统的产品经济、服务经济向体验经济的转变，要求旅游目的地对旅游产品的开发进行创新，转变传统的旅游产品开发模式，适应旅游经济发展的要求。

5.2 旅游产业战略因素

旅游业发展的要求：将建设成为重要世界旅游目的地的定位就是要树立优秀形象、打造硬环境、加快培育市场、提高市场竞争力。八廓街由传统功能向新兴功能的演化可以实现文化街区的可持续发展、拉萨文化的传承、城市风貌特色的形成以及探索旅游目的地的建设问题。

5.3 旅游与文化融合的促动

旅游者消费需求转变的要求，多元化、个性化的消费需求的出现，要求旅游目的地提供多元化的旅游产品，要求旅游从业人员提供更人性化的服务，实现食、住、行、游、购、娱

“一条龙”的服务。例如以旅游者和信教徒一起转八廓街为例，旅游者转八廓街是为了体验这种宗教文化，而信教徒则是为了修行，尽管二者目的不一样，却实现了融合。

6.结语

笔者对拉萨市旅游文化街区八廓街的传统功能和新兴功能分别进行了论述，以及分析了由传统功能演变为新兴功能之后，在旅游快速发展过程中存在的诸多弊端，笔者并没有提出解决措施，非常遗憾。鉴于本人能力和时间的限制，收集到的一手资料和二手资料有限，文章不足之处，请读者给予指正。

参考文献：

[1]刘颂，王雪君.上海旅游文化街区的个性打造：[J].上海城市规划，2006，（6）：42-22

[2]夏健，王勇.从重置到重生：居住性历史文化街区生活真实性的保护[J].城市发展研究，2010，2（17）：134-139.

[3]苏静，陆林.城市文化街区功能演化研究[J].人文地理，2010，2（25）：70-73.

[4]蒋其平，刘要收，周满，晋美.对拉萨老城转经道的认识与思考[J].南方建筑，2013，（1）：32-35.

[5]胡海燕，图登克珠，次仁德吉.基于功能演变视角的历史文化街区保护与发展研究――以拉萨老城区为例[J].大学学报，2010，3（25）：15-19.

[6]益西曲珍.论八廓街形成的原因[D].大学，2010.

[7]胡海燕，图登克珠，次仁德吉.基于功能演变视角的历史文化街区保护与发展研究――以拉萨老城区为例.[J].大学学报，2010，3（25）：15-19.

篇5

La salud de millones de publicar el anuncio de los resultados, la compañía espera que el beneficio neto en el año 2017, en comparación con el mismo periodo del año anterior, un incremento de 16,36 millones de yuanes - 17.33  millones de euros, con un crecimiento interanual del 362.51%-383.92%.Durante el período del informe, la empresa filial de Holding del Grupo franc (000513) la transferencia completa el 100% de sus acciones de la filial de Zhuhai Victoria Star Industrial Co., Ltd, el 17 de julio de 2017.El  aumento de la transferencia de alrededor de 15.74 millones el beneficio neto de la empresa, finalmente los beneficios comerciales con datos anuales de auditoría prevalecerá.

El beneficio neto de 85%-115% Tech: Tsuen plata antes de 2017

Ruta de la plata de alta tecnología (300087) anuncio, la compañía espera que  los beneficios netos por 568 millones en 2017 - 6600 millones, con un crecimiento interanual del 85%-115%.Ying - en el mismo periodo del año pasado. 3067.72 millones de beneficio.Las causas principales de crecimiento de los resultados anuales de la empresa el buen rendimiento de las principales razas de 2017 el mercado, las ventas alcanzan lo previsto.

Hengfeng herramientas: beneficio neto 30% - 60% antes de 2017

Hengfeng herramientas (300488) anuncio, la compañía espera que los beneficios netos para el año 2017 9703.10 millones - 1,19 millones de dólares, un aumento de 30% - 60%.Ying - en el mismo periodo del año pasado.  7463.92 millones de beneficio.

Recursos: 27%-59% íntimo beneficio neto antes de 2017

Envez de recursos (000975) anuncio, la compañía espera que el beneficio neto de 2017 para 28.000 millones - de 35.000 millones, lo que representa un crecimiento interanual de: 27.48%-59.35%.Durante el período del informe, la compañía holding de las ventas de la filial de producción de Mongolia Interior  Yulong Mining Co., con un incremento interanual, también por el plomo, los factores que influyen en el aumento de los precios de metal de zinc, su beneficio neto aumentó en comparación con el año anterior.

Haichen Pharmaceutical: Antes de 2017, en beneficio de más de 4

Hisun Pharmaceutical (300584) anuncio, la compañía espera que los ingresos  de explotación total de 455 millones de dólares para 2017, un aumento  interanual del beneficio neto para 62.03%; 6468.81 millones - 6694.99  millones, con un crecimiento interanual del 43%-48%.

篇6

*Corresponding author.

Received 23 January 2012; accepted 23 March 2012.

Abstract

This paper explores the influence of the conception of love in Plato’s Symposium on Virgil’s Aeneid and the French Eneas through a comparative analysis methodology that highlights the shared thread and influence between Plato’s Symposium and Virgil’s Aeneid and the French Eneas. The study mainly focuses on showing the readers how the Greek concept of the spiritual and heavenly love is highly praised and favored by Virgil’s Aeneid and the French Eneas because it is an everlasting and healthy kind of love.

Key words: Earthly love; Spiritual love; Divine love; Greek concept of love; Plato’s Symposium; Virgil’s Aeneid; The French Eneas; Platonic love; Absolute love

Hassan Ali Abdullah Al-Momani (2012). The Influence of the Conception of Love in Plato’s Symposium on Virgil’s Aeneid and the French Eneas. Studies in Literature and Language, 4(2), -0. Available from URL: /index.php/sll/article/view/j.sll.1923156320120402.1045

DOI: /10.3968/j.sll.1923156320120402.1045

There is no subject which has been ever thought of or written about in literature, particularly in poetry, more than the subject of love. Apart from the universal interest of poets in love, the fact remains that almost all human beings, primitive or civilized, must have experienced a kind of love in one way or another. Many great men of letters such as Plato and Ovid tackled the theme of love because it is a vital phenomenon which preoccupies the minds and hearts of men and women as long as there is life on earth.

Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas depict the conception of love from different perspectives, in which there is clear evidence that Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas are highly influenced by the Greek conception of love represented in Plato’s Symposium. In this paper, I will trace this influence through studying both Plato’s Symposium and its influence on Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas.

There are some critics who studied the influence of Plato’s Symposium on Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas depending on the fact that Plato was born before Virgil. Plato, the greatest philosopher of ancient Greece, was born in Athens in 428 or 427 B.C.E. to an aristocratic family, wheras Publius Vergilius Maro was born on the 15th of October, 70 B.C.E., near Mantua. Dickinson (2002) claims that the morality of Virgil’s work, especially his ideas of good and evil are derived from the Platonic philosophy. The writer refers to Professor Jackson Knight’s claim that “the golden bough wherewith Aeneas gains entrance to the ‘Spiritual World beyond death’ as a symbolic reference to Plato…As embodied in Virgil’s poetry, the moral ideas are of profound value to Christian and pagan alike: there are the strongest grounds for saying that Virgil is the greatest creative genius of Western civilization” (377). Furthermore, Dickinson thinks that Aeneas was Augustus’ friend: “he was subsidized by him” (377). The critic states that “there is no question that Virgil was influenced by the times he lived in” (377). Finally, Dickinson asks “how can a great artist not be so influenced?” (377).

Additionally, Wardy (2007) claims that Virgil’s Aeneid is indirectly influenced by Plato’s Symposium. He thinks that this influence is represented in the “light of the purported intertextual allusion” (155). He challenges the critics who think that there is no influence of Plato on Virgil. The critic thinks that Virgil does to incorporate his Platonic material in his text. Wardy argues that Virgil “never specifically tosses in a citation or generates an echo for its own sake: for him, writing is rewriting, as he harmoniously or polemically engages with the multiple traditions which he so spectacularly enriches. His encounters with Homer, Hesiod, Callimachus, Ennius, Lucretius, Catullus, and others are intricate and subtly ambitious affairs; but his tacit dialogue with Plato is another sort of conversation altogether” (155).

Wardy thinks that Nisus and Euryalus episode in Aeneid IX draws an inspiration from Phaedrus’s speech in Plato’s Symposium. He argues that this relationship is not casual. He describes this similarity by saying: “a part of Symposium is a partial blueprint, model, or template for a section of the Aeneid” (155). Wardy provides a piece of evidence for his conviction that there is an influence of Plato on Virgil through saying: “Plato’s engagement with Homer is anything but superficial; and it is blindingly obvious that this is also true of Virgil’s. Virgil’s recognition and appreciation of the philosopher’s manifold Homeric interests would provide one very sound reason for his thoughtful reworking of Platonic texts. And there are proper grounds for discerning a tighter affiliation with the Symposium” (164). Regarding the influence of Plato’s Symposium on Eneas, it should be stated that this influence is not a direct one, but it is filtered through the Aeneid as we will see in the analysis.

The Greek conception of love can be divided into two kinds, earthly love and divine love, for the Greek mythology and beliefs in the existence of another world are influential. Plato’s belief in a world of ideas, or say his belief in the absolute love, is exceptional because it is natural for a philosopher to find a place for his concept of love within the framework of his systematic theory of ideas.

In this regard, we should differentiate between the three kinds of love in order to better understand the influence of Symposium on Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas. Trentadue (2006) argues that heavenly love in Plato’s Symposium is concerned “with the virtue of our partner”. He uses the fireplace analogy to explain the idea of heavenly love:

Heavenly love can be compared to the fire that occurs when the heavier logs ignite. If we not only have a sufficient quantity of kindling, but also truly care for our partner, it will produce enough heat over a period of time to ignite the heavier logs. The heat of the fire can be compared to the passion from being in love. In this state or condition, and under the right nurturing circumstances (such as warmth, caring, affection, integrity, and open, honest communication between both persons) the heat from being in love can ignite the logs of true love, which will burn for a very long time and provide a constant source of heat, warmth, and beauty. This is heavenly love, and it lasts longer than earthly love (11-12).

Trentadue defines the earthly love as “the desire of the body rather than of the soul”, inwhich this kind of love is not long-lasting and is related to the initial attraction when two lovers fall in love, and then it disappears. The critic provides a very interesting description of this kind of love by comparing it with fire:

A good fire requires a supply of wood, such as logs, and these logs need smaller pieces of wood, known as kindling, to heat the logs sufficiently so they can burn on their own. This kindling ignites readily and burns very hot, but, unfortunately, burns so quickly that the heat it produces is short-lived, much like the attraction of earthly love. This will not lead to a long-lasting fire or a long-lasting relationship (11).

Additionally, Trentadue explains the third kind of love which is the divine love. He claims that divine love is the highest type of love which leads to wisdom. It transcends all the earthly instincts and leads to the divine concepts, such as the existence of God. It is the kind of love that leads us to the end of knowing, “where knowledge becomes divine, is the state of Loving, in which the inherent beauty of all things is made clear. Eastern thought has called this condition Nirvana, and Judeo-Christian beliefs identify it as the universal love of God which extends through all things” (5).

Thus, we notice through looking at the definitions of the different kinds of love in Plato’s Symposium that earthly love is related to the idea of procreation. It is an important kind of love to save the humanity race on the earth. In contrast, the heavenly love is the type which goes beyond the physical appearance and comes from the deep soul. In other words, heavenly love is related to the virtues and harmony between the lovers’ souls. The divine love is the “the highest type of love: one devoid of personal interests that relishes in the success of its object. The greatest love encourages the best practices, characteristics, opportunities, and if at all possible, the best life. This love is necessarily selfless” (5).

The Roman conception of love can also be divided into earthly love and divine love for the Romans, like Greeks, believe in supernatural powers and have their own gods. For example, Venus, the Roman goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, corresponds to Aphrodite, the Greek goddess.

Plato’s Symposium reveals the natural personality of Socrates. It deals with the theme of love which is one of the most important interests of mankind. Probably this theme is closer to literature than philosophy simply because it is a traditional subject handled by almost all poets, old and new.

The term “symposium” has two meanings, old and new. To the Greeks and Romans, it is a drinking together after a banquet party during which a debate over a particular subject occurs. To the modern world, symposium means either a collection of brief articles dealing with an important topic, or a conference at which a certain topic is discussed by many writers or scientists.

Plato’s Symposium is a number of opinions given by many great men of letters and scholars on the art of love. Apollodorus repeats the discourse which he had heard from Aristodemus. Originally, the speeches were delivered at Agathon’s house where a banquet was held on the occasion of his winning of a prize for his first tragedy. The participants were: Phaedrus, Pausanias, Eryximachus, Aristophanes, Agathon, and Socrates. I am going to shed light on each one’s ideology on love and how it can be related to the concept of love in Aeneid and Eneas.

The issue of love has been initiated by Phaedrus and suggested by Eryximachus, a physician who also suggests that too many drinks should not be the features of the party. Phaedrus believes that the god of love is the eldest of the mighty gods and that it has no parents. In order to support his point of view, he quotes both Hesiod and Parenides who affirm that Earth and Love came into being after the Chaos (universe) (41-44).

Phaedrus’s second important argument is that love is “the source of the greatest benefits” to human beings. He believes that love is the source of all virtues and principles of morality. He also asserts that a state whose rulers and subjects love one another would be the best state, and that an army of lovers would overcome the world. Of course, the word “lovers” here is very general (41-44).

The significance of love, says Phaedrus, appears in the behavior of the lover whose life will be at the service of his beloved. He refers to Alcestis and Achilles, the former sacrifices her life for her husband, and the latter retaliates for the death of Patroclus, his lover, by slaying Hector. However, Phaedrus believes that love is the “giver of virtue in life and of happiness after death.”(41-44).

Phaedrus’s conception of love can be noticed in both Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas, in which Aeneas is motivated by his sense of love and loyalty for his people to battle the Greeks. It is true that he is influenced by the will of gods. His love for his people and his willing to found a new race in Italy that will eventually become the Roman Empire is more important. Additionally, Aeneas sacrifices himself for the sake of his people because he shares with them the suffering which motivates him to achieve his goal:

Sorrow too deep to tell, your majesty,

You order me to feel and tell once more:

How the Danaans leveled in the dust

The splendor of our mourned-forever kingdom---

Heartbreaking things I saw with my own eyes

And was myself a part of. Who could tell them,

Even a Myrmidon or Dolopian

Or ruffian of Ulysses, without tears? (II.3-10).

From the previous quotation we notice how Aeneas refers to the shared emotion and suffering between him and his people when he uses the possessive adjective “our”. It is clear that the kind of love Aeneas has for his people is the love of a ruler for his people which implies all senses of devotion and loyalty. Also, the people of Aeneas share with him this feeling of love which is represented by their following him in his battles against the Greeks and in all his decisions. Thus, Aeneas and his people win the battle at the end and rule Italy. They rule Italy because they are, as Phaedrus claims, an army of lovers who can overcome the world.

Additionally, Aeneas’s love for his father Anchises makes him determined to achieve his goal. The influence of his love for his father is clear throughout the poem, in which he says:

Did you suppose, my father,

That I could tear myself away and leave you?

Unthinkable; how could a father say it?

Now if it is please the powers above that nothing

Stand of this great city; if your heart

Is set on adding your own death and ours

To that of Troy, the door’s wide open for it (II. 857-863).

Thus, Aeneas’s ability of leadership is highly influenced by his sense of love for his father who encourages Aeneas to proceed in his quest.

Another influence of Phaedrus in the Aeneid is that Aeneas prefers his love for people to his love for Dido. He leaves her in a sorrowful situation because he has been reminded of his duty towards his people. In other words, Aeneas does not make the choice to leave Dido by himself. Although he indulges in a romance with her, he proceeds in his duty which is to found a new race in Italy. Thus, Aeneas’s love for his people is based on Phaedrus’s claim that a lover’s life will be at the service of his beloved people. As Proce (2006) describes him, Aeneas is “an idyllic Roman hero, who never abandons his “divine” duty. He, in contrast, forsakes his own desire and leaves Dido and Carthage to found what would become Rome. The Aeneid teaches that had Aeneas not followed his duty, Rome would never have existed” (23).

Dido’s love for Aeneas can be related to Phaedrus’s claim, in which she becomes as a slave of her desire for Aeneas. Apart from the claim that her love is sexual for him, she shows herself in the image of a lover who is at the service of her beloved. She abandons the construction of Carthage and indulges in a romance with Aeneas. She tries to be a loyal lover but she is faced with Aeneas’s love for his people and duty.

Proce (2006) describes Dido’s problem by saying that she is “a victim to her own passion. Due to this passion, she neglects her kingdom and forsakes her vow to remain faithful to her recently murdered husband, for a man who ultimately rejects her. Dido’s tragic tale is an example of Augustus’ social reform: it provides instruction to women through criticism of female behavior. Virgil draws attention to Dido’s emotional and moral weaknesses because she is a woman. Dido demonstrates this weakness by forsaking her country for the passion of a man” (22). Proce also describes the tragic consequence of Dido’s love by saying: “when Dido neglected her country’s needs, it led not only to her own demise through her suicide, but to the demise of Carthage as well” (23).

Thus, the type of love presented in Virgil’s Aeneid is influenced by Phaedrus’s conception of love which views love as the source of greatest benefits. Aeneas is motivated by the love for his people and his commitment to duty. His duty is related to the greatest benefits for his people, so he succeeds at the end, but Dido’s personal love does not bring any great benefits for her people because she is not interested in their benefits, so her love is destined to fail at the end.

Looking at the character of Eneas in the French text makes us relate it to the claim of Phaedrus that love is the source of all virtues and principles of morality. This claim is clear in Eneas’s love for Lavine which makes him a better character. He has all the characteristics of nobility, bravery, and beauty which are due to his love for Lavine. He perceives his courage and strength which make him a hero:

“This land is now much more beautiful to me, and this country pleases me greatly; yesterday became an extremely beautiful day when I stopped beneath the tower where I gained that love. Because of it I am much stronger and more high-spirited, and will very gladly fight for it” (Yunck, p.236).

Thus, Eneas’s love for Lavine makes him a moral person who devotes himself for the sake of his beloved. Turnus also fights to marry Lavine. He is not motivated by his true love for her, so he does not have good characteristics. He loses the battle with Eneas and is defeated by him because he does not love Lavine truly. After he is wounded, Turnus begs for his life, telling Eneas: “Everyone sees well that you have defeated me and conquered all with great strength” (Yunck, p.250). Thus, Turnus is a weak warrior who surrenders at the end because he does not love Lavine truly.

The second to speak in Symposium is Pausanias who rightly criticizes the generalities of Phaedrus’s conception of love. He divides love into two kinds, heavenly and earthly, for he believes that there are two goddesses, the heavenly Aphrodite and the earthly, and that the former has to be given great consideration. His argument is based on the idea that actions are either good or bad according to their performance. Similarly, love is an action which is either good or bad according to its purpose. He declares that foolish love affairs should be forbidden by law for they affect not only the future of the youth but also the whole nation (45-50).

Pausanias refers to the lover’s manner and the attitude of tradition towards it. Social conventions, he says, may allow the lover to do things otherwise unacceptable. Both bodily love and spiritual love are appreciated by Greek traditions, but the love of the soul is always given the first place because it is everlasting and is based on virtue and wisdom (45-50).

Clearly, Pausanias’s conception of love influences the concept of love in both Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas, in which the heavenly or spiritual love is given the priority. This is due to its usefulness for lovers and its eternal characteristics. For example, we notice that the kind of love between Aeneas and Dido in Virgil’s Aeneid is a bodily or earthly love, in that it is based on lust and bodily desires. It is also clear that this kind of love is not idealized, and it is associated with imagery linked to madness, fire, or disease. Love here is a force that brings violence and death to Dido; it makes her lose her self control. Virgil describes Dido’s love as a fire:

The queen, for her part, all that evening ached

With longing that her heart’s blood fed, a wound

Or inward fire eating her away.

The manhood of the man, his pride of birth,

Came home to her time and again; his looks,

His words remained with her to haunt her mind,

And desire for him gave her no rest (IV. 3).

Thus, Dido’s love is strongly based on a desire which is according to Pausanias’s conception an earthly love that is not everlasting. Virgil describes the tragic end of this kind of love by saying:

On Dido in her desolation now

Terror grew at her fate. She prayed for death,

Being heartsick at the mere sight of heaven.

That she more surely would perform the act

And leave the daylight, now she saw before her

A thing one shudders to recall: on altars

Fuming with incense where she placed her gifts,

The holy water blackened, the spilt wine

Turned into blood and mire (IV. 622-630).

Thus, in light of Pausanias’s claim that love is an action that might have a good or bad purpose, we can notice that Dido’s love to Aeneas is bad because of its purpose which is based on fulfilling Dido’s desires with Aeneas. It is not a heavenly love because it is related to lust, not to the soul. Also, it is depicted as a force which distracts its victims from their responsibilities, in which Dido abandons her construction of Carthage and Aeneas must move on because the time he spends with Dido only keeps him from his selfless task of founding an empire. Virgil depicts Dido’s tragedy and its influence on her people when he says:

Amid these words her household people saw her

Crumpled over the steel blade, and the blade

A flush with red blood, drenched her hands. A scream

Pierced the high chambers. Now through the shocked city

Rumor went rioting, as wails and sobs

With women’s outcry echoed in the palace

And heaven’s high air gave back the beating din,

As though all Carthage or old Tyre fell

To storming enemies, and, out of hand,

Flames billowed on the roofs of men and gods (IV. 920-929).

Therefore, it might be concluded that Virgil is highly influenced by Pausanias’s conception of love in terms of the negative and tragic consequences of the earthly love which is not related to the heavenly one.

Looking at the character of Eneas in the French text gives us clear evidence of Pausanias’s influence on it. Eneas’s love for Lavine is a heavenly one, in that it is not based on lust and on desires. It is a fully spiritual love which is also based on the rationality of lovers. Lavine firstly tries to speculate on the meaning of love and knows about the pains of earthly love which is based on lust and desires; she listens to the definition of irrational love from her mother who describes it as:

Love is painted there alone, holding two darts in his right hand and a box in his left;one of the darts is tipped with gold, which causes love, and the other with lead, which makes love alter. Love wounds and pierces often, and is thus painted figuratively to show clearly his nature. The dart shows that he can wound, and the box that he knows how to heal (Yunck, p.213).

Although Lavine’s mother warns her of the pains of love, Lavine wants to try love. She starts loving Eneas’s nobility and bravery. She loves him but she does not act on love, she says about her experience: “Now I know enough about love; my mother spoke the truth indeed; I could not learn about love from anyone else as well as I could from myself” (Yunck, p.217). Similarly, Eneas is motivated by Lavine’s love which changes him to be a noble and brave man. He does not indulge in a romance with her because he wants to know about love. When he knows about love, his character changes a lot, and he exerts his hard efforts to show Lavine that he loves her. Thus, they have both the responsible love and the harmony of their souls because their purpose is to love each other. The success of their love relationship is due to their ability to harmonize both the bodily love with the spiritual love, so “Never did Paris have greater joy when he had Helen in Troy than Eneas had when he had his love in Laurente” (Yunck, p.256). Thus, both Eneas and Lavine are physically and spiritually attracted to each other.

Pausanias’s speech is followed by Eryxiamachus’s idea of love. He insists that there are two kinds of love, divine and earthly, and that they are both found in the human body as healthy and unhealthy elements. He explains that the wise man is the one who can harmonize between these opposite elements. He believes that good and evil are present in the nature of love, and that love is the greatest power by which man can make friends on earth as well as in heaven. He utterly connects man’s earthly love with the bestial desires (53-57).

Eryximachus points out that contradictions such as right and wrong, good and bad, false and true, are found everywhere, not only in the nature of love but also in the nature of seasons and the revolutions of heavenly bodies where hot and cold are discerned. His concept of higher love is based on the harmony between the good and bad elements in the human relationship. This harmony is for the benefit of man on earth and in heaven. The greatest happiness, to Eryximachus, lies in the communion between gods and men. It is very clear that the physician, in his attempt, tries to find a link between earthly and heavenly love. Earthly desires are unhealthy. Man’s eagerness for heavenly communion is healthy. Heavenly love is the source of religion and happiness (53-57).

Eryximachus’s conception of love can be noticed in the love relationship between Aeneas and Dido which fails because it is based on the earthly love represented in Dido’s desires and lust. Adams (2005) comments on the problem of love in Aeneid and compares it to the love relationship in Eneas by saying:

The Eneas composer uses Dido and Lavine to demonstrate two responses to love. Dido cannot manage her desire, she does not know how to use the art of love, she succumbs to lovesickness, and her political status suffers. Lavine does know how to manage love: she manages her own desire and uses the art of love to solicit Eeneas’ desire (p.2).

Thus, the problem in the Aeneid is Dido’s inability to harmonize the earthly love with the heavenly one, whereas in Eneas the love relationship succeeds because it is rational and is not based on desires.

Aristophanes begins his discourse by going back to the origin of man whose nature seemed to be different from the present. Although Aristophanes’s picture of man’s origin is funny, the argument seems to be serious for the interference of gods and the disobedience of man. This is a religious argument which reveals earnestness (58-65).

The above argument is followed by another which speaks of the origin of love as a punishment. For the man who has been cut into two parts has the desire to go back to his earlier form. Aristophanes believes that man’s strong desire to reunite his separate parts and his pursuit of the whole is called love. The process of reproduction seems to be another punishment designed by Zeus (58-65).

In light of the above conception of love, we can say that Dido’s love for Aeneas is a kind of punishment. It is not based on finding her separate part but it is related to her desire to fulfill her sexual need. Additionally, it is clear that Aeneas does not find Dido as his separate part because there is no shared spiritual harmony between them because their love is based on physical attraction. Thus, Dido’s relationship with Aeneas is not a love one. On the contrary, it is a relationship based on fulfilling her sexual need which makes her leave her duty towards her people and be punished at the end.

Agathon’s conception of love is based on two arguments: firstly, the praise of love as a god; and secondly, the gifts bestowed by love upon man. Speaking of the qualities of the god of love, Agathon remarks that love is the fairest because he is the youngest, and youth is always beautiful. He is the tenderest for he walks not on earth but on the hearts and souls of gods and men. He is flexible and dwells among the flowers. Love’s virtue lies in the fact that he suffers nothing and does wrong to nobody. All gods and men serve him by their own free will. He uses no force; he is temperate and just. All pleasures are his servants. He is also the bravest for even the god of war yields to his control (67-72).

In his poetic conclusion, Agathon glorifies the god of love because he is the source of many virtues such as delicacy, tenderness, courtesy, and grace. He speaks of love’s magical power by using magical words to enchant the ears of his listeners. Agathon’s poetic approach can be noticed throughout all the discussion of his concept of love. He connects love with youth and beauty, ignoring the fact that love has nothing to do with either, age or beauty. He thinks that love is a heart’s endeavor as far as there are heart beatings in life. It is the warmth of feelings as long as there are warm affections and flaming passions in the human being. Love is a powerful authority which masters all kinds of hearts within a frame of pains and pleasures.

Agathon’s conception of love has influenced Eneas in the French text, in that we find Eneas’s character differs from that in Aeneid. He has the characteristics of nobility, beauty, and bravery because of the influence of love. Eneas states the influence of love on him and how it makes him braver in his battle with Turnus in order to gain Lavine’s favor. Additionally, the power of love makes Eneas look handsome; it makes him committed to the responsibility of love and to give up his greed and to work to fulfill his destiny which is to gain Lavine’ love, so he does not think about what might happen to him with Turnus; he thinks about gaining Lavine’s love which makes him stronger and more beloved. Eneas states the influence of love on him when he says: “Because of it I am much stronger and more high-spirited, and will very gladly fight for it” (Yunck, p.236). Thus, it is clear that these changes in Eneas’s character are due to what Agathon claims that love is the source of virtues and beauty.

Plato’s conception of love is based on three stages: earthly, heavenly, and absolute. His earlier arguments show his interest in the dialectical method of Socrates, his master. Socrates’s ideology of love is that love is neither mortal (man) nor immortal (god), but he is a great spirit, intermediate between god and man (75-95).

It will be useful in this discussion to summarize Platonic love because of its importance. It has three phases: firstly, the earthly love which is connected with the body; secondly, the spiritual love which is related to heaven; and thirdly, the absolute love which is connected with the mind and the abstract world, the world of ideas in the ideal world. Undoubtedly, the absolute love is the highest and the most beneficial to human beings for it teaches them the real meaning of truth and brings to them all happiness (75-95).

Clearly, Plato’s conception of love has its own influence in both the Aeneid and Eneas. In the Aeneid, love is represented in the form of earthly love which is based on desire. It is not a spiritual and absolute love because it is irrational. Dido’s love for Aeneas cannot be seen in the scope of absolute love because it is not controlled by mind and exists in the ideal world. Additionally, it is not beneficial to both Dido who leaves her duty to construct Carthage and Aeneas who does not proceed to achieve his duty to dominate Italy.

Eneas’s love for Lavine can be seen as a spiritual and partly absolute love. It is based on the rationality of Eneas and Lavine and the harmony between their souls. Also, it brings benefits and happiness for both of them and for their people.

Finally, it can be concluded that Plato’s Symposium has influenced the love conception in both Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas. The Greek conception of love is based on distinguishing between the earthly love which is based on the human’s desires and the heavenly or spiritual love which is based on the harmony between lovers’ souls. The Greek conception of love criticizes the earthly love negatively because it is unhealthy. This unhealthy love is what we notice in Virgil’s Aeneid, which is not an everlasting love. Additionally, the Greek conception also praises the heavenly and absolute kinds of love which are represented in Eneas’s love to Lavine, which is rational and brings a lot of virtues to the lovers.

References

Adams, T (2005). Violent Passions: Managing Love in the Old French Verse Romance. Studies in Arthurian and Courtly Cultures. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Dicknson, Patrick (2002). The Aeneid. Signet Classic.

John Yunck (Trans.) (1974). Eneas: A Twelfth-Century French Romance. Columbia U. Press.

Plato (1951). The Symposium (W. Hamilton, Trans.). Britain: Penguin Books Inc.

Proce, Jennifer (2006). Roman Propaganda Women Admired and Condemned. Symposium, 4, 20-28.

Trentadue, Walter (2006). The Nature of Love Plato’s Symposium. Symposium, 4, 9-12.

篇7

在女性主义者那里，这段话成为《新约》是以父权制方式编撰的一条明证。保罗为女性所定的这条“闭口不言”的戒律，从新约的文本生成上先期将女性推到一个次要的、被控制和被压迫的地位，而与这段话功用相符的是，实际上历史中的女性，包括今天的许多女性们，在一种对政治、经济、文化、社会都“闭口不言”的方式当中完成自己的一个个个体、乃至群体的生命过程，从而给女性要求觉醒的过程更多的阻力——历史的、宗教的、心理上的……

温德尔在其《女性主义神学景观》中阐述说：最初圣经中耶稣的形象是一个女性的关怀者，且这种关怀是建立在平等的基础上的。而我们在新约当中也能看到耶稣最初以一个尊重甚至偏爱女性的角色出场——他倾听女性的谈话，和她们交谈，替她们治病，这一点特别体现在耶稣对抹大拉的态度上边：他赦免了抹大拉的罪，并使拉撒路死而复生。然而耶稣最终父权制化了，连同《圣经》一道，耶稣的光芒渐渐遮蔽了他身边的女性，平等的关系不存在了，这些女性形象都成为耶稣背后的潜台词。 让我们来看一看《圣经》当中基督背后的女性形象。在《圣经》的《新约全书》当中，有两位女性与基督的联系最为密切，其中一个是圣母玛利亚，另一个则是抹大拉的玛利亚。

圣母玛利亚在圣经中的出现是关键的。她正是那个具有上帝的“子宫”的人，是她的存在将天堂与尘世、神与人联结到了一起。同时她又是耶稣最虔诚的信徒之一，始终以一个信仰者、崇拜者、支持者的身份出现，而且本身又成为被崇拜的对象，成为母性、慈爱与宽容的象征。圣经题材的艺术作品，特别是绘画和雕塑作品当中，都把圣母玛利亚描绘为永恒的母亲、圣洁的女性，头上永远是神圣的光辉。然而，圣经当中的圣母形象是有问题的：首先是童贞女的未婚先孕——后来反叛教会权威的人对此提出疑问并获得结论：圣母乃是的化身，（很巧合的是圣母与抹大拉的玛利亚有是同名）。无论是古典绘画当中的格列柯那近乎放荡的圣母形象，还是现代主义绘画当中蒙克那介于邪恶与欲当中的圣母，他们都把对于女性的爱与恨、恐惧与厌恶投射到圣母这一极具代表性的女性形象上，是有其根源的。圣母的形象本身为其埋下了伏笔。而与此同时，即使是耶稣本人，对待玛利亚的态度也是令人生疑的——耶稣并不承认自己的母亲，他所追寻和向往的，恋慕和崇尚的始终是“我在天上的父。”当玛利亚与耶稣的兄弟想见他时，耶稣说了一段话，这段话在四福音书中都有记载：“谁是我的母亲？谁是我的兄弟？”并一手指着门徒说：“凡遵行我天父旨意之人都是我的母亲、弟兄、姐妹。”耶稣又曾对玛利亚说：“你这个妇人，我与你有什么相干？”玛利亚在这里并没有得到身份上的确认，她只是耶稣得从降生人间的手段与中介罢了，对于世人或许是神，对于基督来说则只是一个“妇人”，与其他受他医治、救恕和感化的妇人并没有什么不同。古典圣经题材艺术当中无可记述的《圣母子像》、《圣母哀悼基督》、《基督下葬》、《将基督从十字架上放下来》……这样的绘画与雕塑作品将圣母与基督间的母子关系和情感渲染的温馨动人，但人们忽略了圣母与基督间是一种单向的关系——就世俗的情感上来说。因此，圣母玛利亚实际上是被供上祭坛的第一件活物——是为了主的道而牺牲的第一人。

与圣母同名的另一位女性抹大拉也应成为人们阅读圣经时关注的一个点。在卡扎赞斯基《基督的最后诱惑》中，抹大拉与耶稣成了情人关系，最后竟与耶稣结婚生子。而实际上，在圣经当中抹大拉与耶稣的关系的确也是非常特殊的——耶稣似乎特别眷顾抹大拉。《四福音书》中多次提到抹大拉，仅《约翰福音》中就提到六次，《路加福音》又另外提到一次。抹大拉在圣经当中首先是以形象出现的，后来受耶稣赦免便跟从了耶稣，成为耶稣最坚定的使徒之一。她侍奉耶稣，听他传道，更重要的是她目睹基督上十字架，而且成为耶稣复活的见证人。因此在最初的教会和信徒的印象中，抹大拉是作为使徒之一的重要人物，历史上留下的一些痕迹证明了这一点，一幅《抹大拉任命拉撒路为主教》的画就是如此。但好景不长，这一形象很快就为男权中心的书写所篡改：抹大拉成为继夏娃以来诱惑、原罪与的集结体，之后在文学与造型艺术当中，抹大拉都是邪恶与堕落的女性象征。

篇8

近些年，大量外国影片走入国内市场，国内观众英语水平提高促使他们喜欢选择观看配有汉语字幕的原声电影。不同的语言文化障碍制约观众对非母语电影的观看和欣赏，电影字幕翻译的优略直接影响观众对电影的欣赏及对外国文化的了解。电影属于特殊的文学形式，为观众创作、供观众欣赏，所以应以观众的接受、欣赏、评判为生存的标准。因为这一特殊性，电影字幕的翻译目标取向应以观众接受与否选择策略。因此，本文以关联翻译理论为指导，以电影《星际穿越》为例，探讨英汉字幕翻译策略，以期促进电影字幕翻译研究。

一、 电影字幕和翻译

字幕包括语内字幕和语际字幕，前者是指将人物对白转换成文字显示在电影屏幕下方适当的位置，是在语言内部的转换，而后者是指影视原声保留不变，把源语人物对白、独白、视觉、听觉等相关信息转换成目标语语言并显示在屏幕下方。本文主要探讨语际字幕翻译。字幕翻译属于特殊的语际转换，是给电影对白提供同步的译入语说明，影视画面快速切换，人物对白转瞬即过，观众既要观看画面又要快速阅读对应的字幕译文内容，字幕翻译的目的是确保观众获得最大的语境效果，跨越语言文化障碍了解故事发展情节欣赏影片。

字幕翻译具有鲜明的特点。首先，字幕翻译会受到时间和空间的限制，因为电影画面具有瞬间性，随着画面的切换转瞬即逝。其次，电影本身是艺术的体现，它的魅力所在是声音和图像的完美结合，字幕出现在屏幕上自然会影响电影画面的审美效果，所以字幕设计应尽量使画面美观，这就要求对字幕翻译的句式，字数都应照顾电影画面的美观。再次，电影是时代的，也是地域的，是一个社会文化的集中体现，译者考虑到观众的期待视野，译文也具有鲜明的文化地域特征。

二、 关联翻译理论

关联理论是西方近年来具有影响力的一门关于“语言交际”的理论，认为人类的交际行为是“说话人明示、听话人推理”的过程，说话人认为自己传递的信息和听话人是“关联”的，听话人也如此认为，这就是关联性，再此过程中听话人根据自己脑中的储备信息，付出最小的努力获得最大的语境效果，交际得以成功。Gutt把这一理论用于翻译学研究领域，认为翻译是追求最佳关联的推理过程，它是一种不同语言之间的交际行为，包括原作者与译者以及译者与译文读者的交际行为。译者在翻译过程中充分考虑原文作者的意图、译文读者的期待、接受能力、认知环境和译作的语境等，使译文与原文在“释义上相似”，以达到“最佳关联”为翻译目标。[1]

根据关联理论，听话者理解话语的标准是在文本话语和自己的认知语境之间找到最佳关联，即用最小的推理努力，取得最大的语境效果。当然，最佳关联性是个相对的概念，关联性与语境效果成正比，与推理努力成反比，可以用这一函数表示：关联性=语境效果/推理努力。总之，译者在表达时既要能传达原文作者的意图，又要让读者花不必要的努力。[2]

在翻译中，译文读者与原作者生活在不同的认知环境中，如果出现认知不同，在理解文本时，译文读者无法作出正确的语境假设，要么原文作者的意图得不到正确的传递及获得正确的语境效果，要么需要读者花费额外的处理能力，影响理解速度。因此，译者的任务是通过翻译策略保证译文读者获得最大的语境效果而又不付出额外的处理努力。

三、 字幕翻译策略

字幕翻译与文学翻译不同，需要考虑时空限制和电影审美效果，通过字幕设备给观众传递演员对白内容帮助观众理解故事情节，因此，译者需要采取恰当的翻译策略帮助观众深入了解电影的意境和内容，影片也会更容易让观众接受。《星际穿越》是一部充满超现代主义和梦幻色彩的科幻冒险电影，主要讲述了一队探险家利用他们针对虫洞的新发现，超越人类对于太空旅行的极限，从而开始在广袤的宇宙中进行星际航行的故事。该电影构思宏大，既探索人类之间的感情也讲述对宇宙的思考，在2015年第41届美国科幻恐怖电影奖土星奖获得了最佳科幻电影、最佳导演、最佳男女主角在内的10项提名。这部电影在中国的票房自然也少不了汉语字幕的帮助。

（一）明晰原文隐晦信息确保交际成功

考虑到电影字幕的主要特点以及国内外观众不同的认知语境，对于原文对白中的一些隐晦之处译者需要作明晰化处理。原文作者创作时与读者具有相同或相似的文化背景知识，经常省略一些文化信息，这并不影响观众观赏影片，但是对于外国观众就会造成障碍，于是，译者这时需要将这些信息明晰化，采用译入语观众的认知环境中“最佳关联”的表达方式，以帮助译入语观众在有限的时空中欣赏影片，达到成功的交际意图。有时，译者甚至可以对原文进行改写，以确保电影制片人的意图得到正确的理解。例如，原电影中某些像“NASA”“MRI”词语都是英语首字母缩略语，译者在翻译时考虑到观众对这些词汇没有相同的认知语境，把他们所指的“美国国家航天局”和“核磁共振仪”这些隐晦信息翻译出来传递给观众。

又如，电影中男主人公库玻到学校与老师面谈女儿在学校的问题时，老师对他说，“…and see what ideas you might have for dealing with her behavior on the home front。”这句台词中“home front”是指战争时的后方群众，因为在这之前老师提到他女儿与其他同学打仗的事情，所以这里老师把父母比作“战争后方的群众”，考虑到电影字幕翻译的“瞬间性”及关联性，译者直接明了地翻译成“家长”，易于观众欣赏电影，达到成功的交际。

（二）使用通俗易懂的口语可获得足够语境效果

影片中库玻无意闯入美国国家航天局后，问道“So why don't you just let us back up from your fence and we'll be on our way？ Huh？”，译文为“为何不放我们回围墙那儿？ 我们会乖乖离开的，嗯？”英语句式较长，为了便于观众迅速理解原文内容，译者把长句处理为短小句式，再者，“乖乖离开”这样的易懂的口语化词语在译文中应尽量使用。

虽然字幕翻译要求简洁明了的语言，让观众可以用最小的努力获得最大的语境效果，但有时恰当增译，需要观众付出额外的努力获得更大的努力效果，更好的理解影视内容，从而获得最佳关联。例如，基地教授和库玻谈论拯救计划时提到拉撒路任务，“Oh， that sounds cheerful.―― Lazarus came back from the dead.”译文为“拉撒路经由耶稣呼唤，死而复生”。译文中，作者增加“由耶稣呼唤”，虽然观众理解话语时多付出了一些努力，但是却获得了更大的语境效果，即拉萨路是圣经故事中由耶稣唤醒的人物，象征人类的命运，这里暗喻美国国家航天局的秘密小组承担了将濒临灭绝的人类“死马当活马医”的使命，神也是来自高维空间并掌握高科技的未来人类，他们选了库玻、他的女儿、教授和科学探险队员来拯救人类，他们是救赎人类的耶稣。另外，影片中主人公库玻的女儿叫墨菲，她问起他爸爸为什么给她起这个名字时，提起“墨菲定律”，如果译者给增加了这条定律的解释，这条定律的核心是“事情如果有变坏的可能，它总会发生”，通过这一认知语境的补充，观众可以推断出电影制片人的意图是想通过这一名词的内涵与这部电影的主旨暗合。

（三）增删原文以满足观众期待视野

电影字幕翻译涉及电影制片人、字幕译者和译入语观众三者的交际活动。首先是电影制片人与字幕译者之间“推理―明示制片人意图”的过程，然后是字幕译者与观众之间的“推理―明示”过程。对译者而言，译者首先得意识到影片观众介入性，以译语观众为先、充分考虑“电影语境”后明示原文本作者意图为翻译原则进行翻译，在采取翻译策略时充分考虑观众的认知能力和期待视野，继而选择适当的翻译策略。

《星际穿越》讲述探险家在广袤的宇宙间进行星际航行的故事，其中涉及许多科学概念名词，如虫洞、引力弹力效应、裸奇点和因果律，这些概念对于观众来说都是新鲜的名词。观众选择观看这部电影，也是出于对这些新鲜高科技知识的期待以及对未来宇宙的想象，所以在翻译时，译者为了能使观众更好地理解电影内容以及满足他们的期待，可以适当增加关于这些名词的解释说明，帮助观众增加已有认知环境中缺少的信息，有助于观众欣赏太空画面、理解影片深意。如，“虫洞（wormhole）是宇宙中可能存在的连接两个不同时空的狭窄隧道”，“引力弹力效应”是“指把行星当作引力助推器，利用其重力场给飞行器加速”，“裸奇点”指没有被视界包围住的奇点。

结语

总之，电影是国际文化交流的特殊形式，电影字幕译文对于外国观众欣赏电影可以起到关键的辅助作用，关联理论视角使得电影字幕翻译需要综合考虑电影制片人的意图、观众的认知环境、观众的接受能力、观众的期待视野、原文和译文语境等多种因素采取相应的翻译策略，对电影字幕翻译具有很好的指导意义。

参考文献：

[1]Gutt，Ernst-August.Translation and Relevance：Cognition and Context[M].Shanghai：Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，

篇9

2016年1月10日，英国歌手大卫・鲍依因患癌症去世，而就在两天之前，他69岁生日时，刚刚了个人的第25张专辑―《Black Star》（黑星）。很多人还没有来得及认真听完这张专辑，就听到了他的死讯。从推特到微信朋友圈，从梵蒂冈的红衣主教到身边貌似与文艺无关的普通青年，无不对大卫・鲍依的去世发出哀悼与致敬的声音，难怪有评论如此感叹：有退潮，有新浪潮，还有大卫・鲍依！ 天堂里的黑色星星

英国歌手、 词曲作家、 音乐家、 唱片制作人、 画家和演员，大卫・鲍依的这些众多标签中，他最大的成就应当在音乐方面，他一生发行了25张个人专辑，卖出了1.4亿张唱片，96年入选了摇滚名人堂。他的音乐风格涉及影响了朋克、民谣、华丽摇滚、电子、古典、爵士等诸多领域，这些完全无法准确描述他的音乐特质，对于不断追求创新的他来说，只有“变化”才是标签，随着音乐风格不断变化的，是他创造出的一个个经典的舞台形象。这些形象随着大卫・鲍依在音乐领域的走红，迅速成为引领时尚潮流的风向标，人们期待着“摇滚变色龙”带来一次又一次的惊喜。

大卫・鲍依50多年的音乐生涯中的专辑封面，都会出现自己不断变化的形象，直到2013年的《The Next Day》（第二天）沿用了日本摄影师锄田正义（Masayoshi Sukita）为他1977年《Heroes》（英雄）专辑拍摄的封面，而中间大块的白色正方形遮挡了他的脸。

唯一一次例外是他2016年的最后一张唱片封面，白底上只有一颗黑色五角星，下方是设计师用五星的局部拼贴出的他的名字。唱片两天后得知大卫・鲍依死讯后的人们才恍然大悟，《Black Star》是他最后留给人间的死亡艺术品，鲍依用制作这样一张唱片来向世间道别，他在死亡前3天的《Lazarus》（拉撒路）MV中唱道：“当你仰望时，我已在天堂”。

Star，明星：意指天空中需要仰望的发光星体，这个词也用来指代对世间影响巨大，有卓越成就的人，而Star这个词，恰好是大卫・鲍依一生最好的注解。

当明星黯去，我们依然可以从他留在世间的一张张唱片，一首首经典歌曲中，辨析出一颗星体运行过的轨迹，在这些轨迹中，我们轻易就能发现流行音乐巨星大卫・鲍依与太空、星际的交集。 打开宇宙知觉之门

14岁时，大卫・鲍依得到一个萨克斯管作为生日礼物，他兴高采烈地高喊：我要成为一个摇滚明星！家人都以为这不过是个玩笑似的戏言，不想此刻正是这个摩羯座的固执熊孩子一生明星路的起点。

大卫・鲍依的明星路并不顺畅，他在第二年就遇到了坎坷。他在跟好友打架时误伤了左眼险些失明，治疗4个月后，留下了瞳孔散大的后遗症。不过也算是因祸得福，这样的阴阳眼倒成了日后他成为万人迷的独特形象标志，传说这种阴阳眼可以看到常人看不到的超自然现象，只有像耶稣这样的先知或具有神性的人物才具有的特质。

1967年，大卫・鲍依以一张充满想象力又有些古怪的民谣风格专辑进入乐坛，市场反响平平。之后他离开音乐，开始修习佛法，钻研戏剧表演。两年后，当他带着一张太空主题的音乐专辑归来时，迅速成为人人仰望的璀璨明星。这像极了美国布鲁斯大师Robert Johnson与魔鬼做交易的传奇故事，据说他将自己的灵魂和27岁以后的生命卖给魔鬼，几个月之后就从一个吉他菜鸟变成了让人沉迷的吉他大师。

大卫・鲍依则像是被外星智慧生物附体，或是接收到了遥远地外文明传送过来的信息，在1969年的第二张专辑《Space Oddity》（太空奇遇）中，大卫・鲍依突然打开了宇宙知觉之门，外星灵感和音乐才华大爆发，同名单曲获得了空前成功，最终在英国排行榜上拿到了第五的成绩。

This is Major Tom to Ground Control

这里是汤姆船长，呼叫地面指挥

I'm stepping through the door

我正一步步穿过舱门

And I'm floating in a most peculiar way

以奇妙的方式漂浮着

And the stars look very different today.

今日的星空看起来也如此不同

―《Space Oddity》

大卫・鲍依在地球上遥想自己是宇宙飞船的Tom船长时，唱到：“Planet earth is blue！And there's nothing I can do. ”（星球的地面是蓝色的，我对此无能为力） 在40多年后的2013年，加拿大宇航员Chris Hadfield 拿起吉他，真正在太空中翻唱了这首《Space Oddity》：“Planet earth is blue， and there’s nothing left for Chris Hadfield to do.” 他把这一切用摄影机录制下来，制作成了人类历史上第一支太空MV，而这首歌作为宇航员在空间站最后一天的纪念显得无比应景。 华丽巨星的华丽摇滚

在1972年的新专辑《The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars》（奇格星尘的起落与火星蜘蛛）中，大卫・鲍依创造出了雌雄同体的Ziggy Stardust（奇格星尘）形象。舞台上他染着亮红色的头发，画着的浓妆，身穿夸张艳丽的服饰，这些由日本设计师山本宽斋设计的结合日本传统元素与未来主义风格的演出服，与大卫・鲍依创造的外星生命体故事在一起融合发酵，孕育出让人们目瞪口呆进而心悦诚服的时尚流行风暴，这对当时保守的摇滚乐来说是个巨大的冲击，甚至催生出了一个全新的摇滚乐风格：Glam Rock（华丽摇滚）。

这张专辑中的单曲《starman》（外星人）获得了空前的成功，木吉他与弦乐背景下，鲍依温柔的男声唱出的故事是：奇格星尘对孩子们说，天空中有个外星人starman会来拯救他们。这首歌后来被评为百大经典单曲，2012年伦敦奥运会的开幕式上大卫・鲍依表演了这首歌。最近热门的科幻电影《火星救援》中，在几近逼真的火星生活场景下，被困的男主角在向地球总部求救时，这首诞生于40多年前的《Starman》作为背景音乐几乎被完整播放。 他更想成为一个演员

1976年，热爱表演的大卫・鲍依主演了他人生中第一部电影《The Man Who Fell to Earth》（天外来客）。这是一部改编自小说的电影，讲述一个来自文明高度发达但极度缺水的星球的外星人，来到了地球，试图用高科技运送水源回母星，但最终被识破受困于地球的故事。大卫・鲍依扮演的外星人利用他所掌握的先进技术创办了公司，很快就成了百万富翁。但他在一次意外中眼膜受伤，无法再回到母星，后来他只好成为一个摇滚明星，录制唱片通过电波将自己的信息传送回母星。

这简直是为大卫・鲍依量身定做的电影！

后来大卫・鲍依回忆影片的拍摄过程：“那时我几乎将全部的自我都投入进去了，我真的做到了。因为我没什么电影拍摄经验，只能依靠本能来表演，我感觉自己已经和角色融为一体。”

大卫・鲍依曾说过，相比成为一个摇滚明星，他更想成为一个演员，一个出色的演员。这样看来，他缔造的Ziggy Stardust外星人不过是以华丽摇滚形式演绎的舞台剧，音乐只是他表演的一部分。

而当他演自己时，大众都以为他在扮演一个外星人。

“把相当复杂的音乐作品，伪装成简单的样式”

终于，大卫・鲍依厌倦了外星人的角色，Ziggy Stardust宣布死亡。大卫・鲍依开始扮演凡人，一个吸毒过量的瘦白公爵。

毫无征兆的音乐形象转变从他1975年的新专辑《Young Americans》（年轻美国人）开始，火红的乱发变成精心梳洗的时髦金发，华丽而新奇的酷炫服装变成了普通人穿着的西装革履。当他把音乐转变成符合美国人口味的灵魂乐后，原来的死忠粉丝开始变节，弃他而去，但与约翰列侬合作的单曲《Fame》（名声）登上美国排行榜第一名的位置后，为他赢得了更多粉丝的关注。所幸，鲍依的粉丝比列侬的要理性得多，至少不会跑到他面前叫喊：你变了！然后再开上一枪。

形象上做出了迎合大众审美口味的转变后，鲍依开始在音乐上进行大胆前卫的艺术探索。他开始在摇滚、朋克的曲风中，融入氛围感更强的电子乐，这样的转变源于其结识了氛围音乐大师Brian Eno，并跟他一起移居到了柏林，最终他们一道完成了被誉为大卫・鲍依艺术巅峰的“柏林三部曲”。1977年他们在柏林制作了两张专辑《Low》（低落）和《Heroes》（英雄），并在1979年制作了《Lodger》（房客）。

《Low》专辑的音乐走向变得更为抽象，受极简主义影响很大，鲍依甚至开始尝试放弃叙事性的歌词，让音乐回归声音的本质。同年的《Heroes》专辑被誉为Bowie最伟大的作品，这张初听起来像是流行摇滚的音乐专辑，被放进了更多的声音实验，例如：白噪音发生器、合成器以及日本古筝等等声音素材的运用，最为难得的是鲍依在音乐可听性与前卫性方面所做的取舍与平衡，这被音乐评论界称为音乐折衷主义。

这两张专辑被当代杰出作曲家菲利普・格拉斯描述为“天才的作品”，他用这两张专辑的音乐作为基础，创作了两部现代交响乐作品：第1交响曲“Low”; 第4交响曲“Heroes”。格拉斯认为鲍依的天才之处在于，“把相当复杂的音乐作品，伪装成简单的样式”。

《Heroes》专辑中的同名单曲也是大卫・鲍依最知名的单曲，歌词唱的是被柏林墙分隔两地的恋人，为了可以团聚，决心冲破封锁的子弹，哪怕在一起只有一天，哪怕粉身碎骨，他们也要成为英雄。这首歌反讽了人类由于意识形态不同造成的隔阂、伤害，由于歌中积极进取、雄心万丈的励志曲调，成了很多体育广告的背景配乐，2012年伦敦奥运会英国运动员入场以及颁奖典礼时播放的都是这首《Heroes》。甚至因为歌中颂扬的敢于冲破人为障碍大胆追求爱情，很多同性恋团体把《Heroes》当做了同性圣歌。

即使大卫・鲍依在音乐生涯的中后期以地球人的形象在世间歌唱，但他依然用天马行空的想象力创造着不平凡，诉说着对全人类的关爱。

篇10

中图分类号:J201文献标识码:A

Relationship between Painting Styles and the Employment of "Light"

FAN Hong-qu

“光”在西方绘画中扮演着重要角色,是绘画艺术发展历程中一种独特的审美因素。光线在西方绘画中体现着绘画大师的创作意图,映射着心灵和情感世界。正如阿恩海姆所说:“光线是揭示生活的因素之一,对于人的感官来说是最为辉煌和壮观的经验,只有艺术家和诗兴偶发的普通人才能在对它进行审美观察和审美欣赏中,洞见它的美的辉煌。”①

西方油画中对“光”的表现较多的体现在写实性绘画之中。究其原因在于作为西方主要信仰的基督教创世说认为世上的一切都是上帝创造的,而上帝所创的都是真实的,因此西方绘画相应发展了写实性,出现了写实性油画。作为写实性油画,“光”的利用与表现成为重要的绘画要素。真实再现客观现实的愿望,必然导致对“光”的表现进行深入的研究,而对光线效果的不同运用,使油画体现写实性的同时也产生了不同的表现效果。可以说,光的运用和绘画风格这两者是互为因果,密不可分的。纵观西方美术史,没有哪种材料媒介,能比油画更利于表现光影、明暗和质感了。因此,“光”在西方油画艺术中有着特殊的意义和作用。

一、不同表现形式的“光”传达的氛围与意义

绘画作为视觉艺术的一个重要组成部分,是以光的存在为条件的,“光线照射为一切物体的存在提供了一个共同的基础”。②达•芬奇也曾经这样说过:“一切形体都被光与影包围着。”③“光”的运用是绘画中一个非常重要的语汇要素。在长期的宗教题材绘画实践中,西方绘画积累了丰富的技术经验,表现各种光线下场景的技术体系己经非常成熟。文艺复兴之后,西方绘画的题材由单一的宗教画转向表现现世人生的广阔题材,“光”的表现己成为油画中不可或缺的要素,其表现技巧也成为油画技巧体系的重要组成部分。在绘画作品中,不同种类的光源、光照度、光的方向等都会使所描绘物象的影调呈现出截然不同的视觉效果,其自身的调子与形态上的节奏变化也具有独立的美感。而根据画面所需要传达的一种情绪,也可以用适当的光线来表达这种特定的经验感受,因此不同的光影效果具有不同的意蕴。

1.聚集的光线

所谓聚集的光线,就是像聚光灯一样仅仅照射画面中的某一部分物体,其他物体的光则被弱化。在油画作品中,使用聚焦的光线有利于揭示画面的主题,尤其是大场面的历史画和宗教画。强烈的光线照明,可以使画面构图紧凑、看起来清晰、视点鲜明。

17世纪意大利文艺复兴后期的重要画家卡拉瓦乔的作品里,常使用戏剧般的光线,利用集中的光照射,使人物在暗色空间中分外突出,并且恰到好处地与环境相衔接。他的晚期作品《圣母之死》中,表现手法取侧光照射,把人物安排在强烈的光影变化之间,形成具有戏剧性但又非常真实的效果。

伦勃朗也善于强调光影的戏剧化视觉效果。他把光线集中在他想表现的人物身上其余的部分则隐没在半透明的阴影中,这种技法在他的群像别突出。用聚光的手法在他的油画《夜巡》中显得最为成熟。聚光法可以使主要人物十分突出,并随画家的需要任意安排,使画家在光的运用中获得自由的表现。

拉图尔也是美术史上一位擅长描绘光线与阴影的大师。他用烛光来组织画面,表现以烛光为中心的聚集光,使得画面流露出一股神秘动人的气氛。《油灯前的抹大拉》是其代表作品,那种朴实无华、集中凝练、简洁概括的形式在当时的“古典绘画”中极其少见。

2.散射的光线

达•芬奇曾这样描述散射光:“绘画艺术家首当其冲的第一个志愿就是想在平光的表面上,把一个物体表现的有起伏的、甚至和平面分离开来,谁能在这一艺术事业中强于他人就会获得别人更多赞许,这样的成就不依靠光和影的配置是不能获得的。”④荷兰小画派的代表画家维米尔就擅长于运用散射的光线。在他的画面上往往有一扇敞开的窗子,明亮的阳光由窗外漫射进来,使室内充满了轻柔和煦的自然光,画面生动传神,充满宁静、安适的生活气息。在《窗前读信的妇人》中,整个房间沐浴在温暖的阳光里,静谧得如同轻柔悠扬的音乐,涌进窗户的光线使室内的空间真实可信,柔和与精确、坚实而稳定的效果令人难以忘怀,分布在物体上的光线,更是有效地传达了它们的质感与量感。

3.侧、逆的光线

光线对于空间的造型主要是通过侧光、侧逆光的光线形态,明暗间隔的处理的手法来完成的。侧光、侧逆光的光线形态有利于通过明暗影调的变化表达物体的体积感,勾勒出物体的轮廓,呈现一种趣味的抽象概括,在空间中形成多层景物,将视觉张力的效果发挥到极致。

用逆光探寻物象的光色的千变万化,可以增强艺术的表现力。在勃纳尔所描绘的《逆光下的裸女》中,在这幅充满阳光和空气的室内,裸女逆光而立,丰满健康的身体反射出耀眼的色彩。画家运用类似点彩的碎小笔触,不画阴影但使整个画面充满光感和鲜亮的色彩感,光与色互相融合后,交织成一曲富有韵律的合奏。

总体说来,不同的用光方式可以导致不同的画面效果,从而也会影响观者的视觉心理。聚焦的光线用来组织人物繁多的大场面可以起到突出重点人物形象的作用;漫射的光照则使画面丰富,有抚慰人心灵的感觉;逆光的运用则可以增强艺术的表现力,具有震撼人心的视觉效果。艺术家就是利用这些特征使光线成为表现性的视觉语言。对光线的适当运用或强调,对画面语言的组织和表现都会起到积极的作用。光线作为油画的视觉表现语言,表现形式逐渐的丰富起来,为艺术家开始研究光学,并将其成为画面的“主角”,奠定了基础。

二、各绘画流派对“光”的运用以及“光”的衍变

自文艺复兴以来至19世纪末印象派的出现,“光学的真实感”始终是大部分西方画家追求的目标,艺术家们不断探索和研究光学、色彩学,使光和色的油画视觉表现语言逐步获得了完善。从新古典主义到后印象主义,“光”的表现经历了继承――革命一一颠覆的发展过程,实际上也是从平凡到辉煌直到没落的三个阶段。

1.继承传统的新古典主义――安格尔

安格尔是新古典主义的代表,他指出,“一幅画的光应该投射和集中在画的全局中最强烈的地方,这是为使观者的视线引向这个部分。”⑤人物也是这样,其实,明暗层次应首先从人物开始。安格尔喜欢把视点放在对象的受光部,背景幽暗,因此人物显得尤为突出。雕刻般的造型是安格尔所追求的,如《俄狄甫斯与斯芬克斯》主要的光源完全是在主要人物的身上。这种用光方式完全继承了卡拉瓦乔、伦勃朗等艺术家的传统的表现光的方式。

在安格尔的作品中,对光线的运用是为了强调出主要的人物形象,这时的光线是十分主观的。

2.激情的浪漫主义――德拉克洛瓦

与安格尔持相反艺术观点的德拉克洛瓦重视光线和色彩对比的视觉效果,重视想象和幻想。对于浪漫主义,德拉克洛瓦把它解释为“意味着自由地表达个人的感受,不墨守成规,不喜欢教条。”对于作品中光的运用,也是如此⑥。

德拉克洛瓦在光线的表现上,受到了英国画家康斯太布尔《干草车》、《英国的运河》等几幅风景画的启发,在画《希阿岛的屠杀》的天空时,强调了光的散漫效果,以突出忧郁、悲凉的气氛。而在《但丁之筏》一画中,画家则大胆运用光影与明暗的烘托,对比强烈,画家在这件作品中冲破了新古典派的戒律,把光线与色彩作为审美感染力的主要手段,使情感表现的主题获得了极大的成功。

3.重视自然光的印象派――莫奈

印象派绘画的最重要成就,就是发现和表现户外自然光下的色彩,捕捉大自然的瞬间变化,力求突出画面的偶然性,增加画面的生动和生活气氛,凸显对内心主观意象的表达。印象派绘画在光、色中求形,以光与色表现意和美,力图捕捉物体在特定时间内自然呈现的瞬息色彩。“印象派”沿袭的依然是西方长达数百年的具象写实传统,但是印象主义画家在绘画中表达的是眼见的真实,是对真实物象色彩、光感的追求,对“固有色”观念的颠覆和对物象坚实轮廓的漠视。

印象派的杰出代表莫奈的绘画便忽视物象轮廓的写实,侧重用光线和色彩来表现瞬间的印象,把精力放在捕捉视觉印象的光色变化上,忠实地传达瞬间的视觉感觉。他流连于波光水影,随机地捕捉光色的变化。他喜欢现场作画,大自然色彩氛围、作画时间的短促及他所追求光斑闪耀的艺术效果,使他的画在色彩和笔触上显得自然而生动。在《圣拉撒路火车站》、《1878年6月30日,圣德尼街的节日》等画中,都可看到莫奈作品中所表现随光线即逝的丰富色彩变化和让人心潮起伏的绘画笔触。光使画幅变得栩栩如生,色彩是在空气中颤动的五颜六色,光在他的画面中仿佛有了魔法。

莫奈一生把主要精力放在捕捉瞬间视觉印象的光色变化上,始终坚持探索和研究光线的跃动投射在景物上所产生的微妙的变化,追求独特的色彩艺术效果。

4.颠覆传统的后印象主义――梵高

虽然后印象主义的画家都曾不同程度地追随过印象主义,但后来都不满于印象主义的过分强调客观表现、片面追求外光及色彩,他们主张重新重视美术中形的观念,重视作者的主观个性,注意在作品中表现作者的主观感情和情绪,注意形式的表现力。光的描绘在后印象主义画家的作品中就不再占有主导地位,光的出现不再是自然的光线,而只是为他们作品中所要表达的感情和情绪服务的,所以说光的表现在后印象主义时期油画中的地位发生了巨大的变化。由此,“光”作为光线在现代绘画,尤其是抽象主义绘画中消失了。

对艺术的热烈追求闻名遐迩的传奇式人物凡高,有着独树一帜的画风和荒诞不经的行为。梵高在画他的《向日葵》时曾说过“这是爱的最强光!”。⑦在他的画中,浓重响亮的色彩对比往往达到极限。他那富于激情的旋转、跃动的笔触,光与色的紧密糅合,使他的麦田、柏树、星空等,有如火焰般升腾、颤动,震撼观者的心灵。可以这样说,光与色彩在凡高的画里被发挥到了超越自然的极致。

在油画艺术的发展史上,追求视觉上的真实感,通过对光照现象的模拟实现对客观自然的再现,曾是几代西方艺术家共同追求的目标。因此如何运用光线照射规律来创造更加真实的视觉图像作为油画艺术的重要课题而被艺术家所重视。对于他们而言,光线是获得真实感必不可少的媒介,因此,光在西方油画艺术中占有非常特殊而且重要的地位。

三、“光”对塑造形象具有特殊作用

光线作为重要的造型元素对油画的表现风格和形式有着不容忽视的影响。从历史上来看,文艺复兴时期的油画最为注重光的塑造形体作用。这是因为文艺复兴时期的艺术家普遍追求具有雕塑感的绘画造型。在他们眼里,立体感在绘画中的作用远比色彩重要。达•芬奇认为,物体的形状只有依靠光和影才能呈现出来,利用明暗使平面呈现出浮雕感,是绘画最神奇的一面。他把浮雕感 (立体感)比作绘画的灵魂,是绘画中最重要的元素。

利用光线来塑造形象离不开对空间的营造。光线的不均匀照射可以提高物体空间的深度,使人能够强烈的感觉到物体的空间特征。正是利用了光线照射事物所产生的明暗变化能够使视觉产生空间知觉的这一特征,绘画才能够表现出真实的视觉图像。关于光在塑造空间时起到的作用,贡布里希曾在对意大利画家弗兰西斯加的评价中有过如下的论述:“弗兰西斯加在绘画中完完全全掌握了透视原理。……不过,除了有关几何学方面的种种处理绘画空间的技术之外,他还加进了一种同样重要的新技术:即对光的处理。中世纪的美学家对光很少注意。他们所绘的扁平形体并不投射阴影。马萨乔在这一方面也是一位先驱。……在他的作品中,形体是实在的、有深度的,并且在光和影的有力烘托下出现。但要说到能清楚地意识到阴影所能带来的巨大新作用,而且对透视有同样的重大作用,因为它能制造出深度这一幻象。”⑧

因此,用光来处理塑造形象的方法,作为西方写实油画造型的基本方法一直被后世的艺术家所借鉴,对整个绘画艺术有着重要的影响和作用。

四、“光”对情感表达具有特殊意义

光线对于绘画不仅是再现视觉图像的手段,更多的时候被艺术家用来表现内心的情感和揭示作品的主题。德拉克罗瓦曾说:“绘画引起完全特殊的感情,那是任何其他艺术不可能引起的。这种印象,是由色彩的一定的安排,光与影的变化,总之一句话,是那种可称之为绘画的音乐的东西……。”⑨绘画的精髓在于通过画面来传达某种情感的意蕴,就光线在油画中的应用来看,艺术家对光线的选择和表现常常会导致微妙的画面构成和强烈的精神指向,成为画家表达主观情感和心声的艺术语言。

运用光影的效果来营造画面的气氛,是通常的艺术处理手法。光影是油画艺术的灵魂,并直接参与了绘画的构思构图、形象造型、气氛烘托等艺术创作的全部过程,它能制造各种各样的气氛以及变化,从而引导人们进入“情节”。画家根据作品的特点和功能要求进行构思,发挥想象力,创造性地使用光线、色彩、亮度和反差,大胆地在光线造型中突破用光上的概念化和格式化,通过合理的布光构思、设计,创造性地再现气氛,唤起人们对画中所表达的意境的联想。

此外,光影还可作为“角色”进行塑造,其艺术效果取决于艺术家能否从中发现视觉美点以及处理它们的能力。从而使观众看到艺术家曾经看到过的东西,激发和艺术家同样的情感。好的光影效果来自于创作者的精心构思与设计,来自于对众多一般的和复杂的光线现象中的选择和提炼,光线效果越精炼、越抽象、越典型,就越有视觉美感。光影是油画艺术中的一种重要形式,光影的运用,使作品进人更高的思维境界,这是人们对审美的高层次要求,它使绘画的语言更为丰富,使绘画的审美特征更趋内涵化。

在艺术作品中,适当而巧妙的光影处理,可以简洁明快地传达画面形象中细腻幽微的心理意蕴,表现情感情绪及其深层心理的空间深度,从而产生出更多震撼人心的艺术精品。

五、结语

总而言之,油画艺术的传统决定着“光”的表现和运用在油画中具有着重要的作用,这渗透在油画艺术的方方面面。从古典绘画到后印象主义绘画的20世纪绘画,光线在绘画作品中无不呈现出永恒的面貌。作为表达个体画家心绪的载体――绘画作品上的用光处理,不仅能体现画家深层面的修养,也是形成画家卓然独立绘画风格的不可或缺的重要元素之一。(责任编辑:高笑云)

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