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时间:2023-03-15 21:50:38
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篇1
“让我挑选自己喜欢看的书”
孩子成长需要一个良好宽松的心理环境,然而在现实生活中,不少家长对孩子的期望太高,管得太死,不仅影响了孩子的全面发展,也影响了孩子的身心健康。通过调查我们发现,有40%以上的同学最喜欢家长给予他们一个自由宽松的阅读氛围。
“让我们自愿、让我们自愿!”“让我挑选自己喜欢看的书”“让我随心所欲地看,能看多少就看多少”……一句句简洁的话语道出了孩子的心声。从中我们不难看出:一些家长在要求孩子读书的时候,没有考虑孩子的个人感受,一味地将阅读作为任务强加给孩子,以致孩子产生逆反心理。例如:一些家长为了孩子能写出好作文,提高作文水平,一味地让孩子看作文范本、背优美文句等急功近利的做法,严重损害了孩子的阅读积极性。
我们要将阅读的自由还给孩子,在书的选择上尊重孩子的兴趣。
教给孩子的读书方法就有独到之处。他认为引导孩子读书,第一要读经典,第二“一书不尽,不读新书”,第三就是要培养个人的读书兴趣与方向。在第三点上,曾老先生做得特别好。老大曾纪泽不喜欢科举考试,不喜欢八股文,喜欢西方的语言学和社会学,就鼓励他按自己的兴趣方向去读书。对于老二曾纪鸿,就更是这样了,他努力培养曾纪鸿研究数学的兴趣。看来,对书的爱好因人而异,有人喜欢大江东去的豪迈,也有人喜欢小桥流水的细腻。不要逼着孩子读他不喜欢的书,否则就会适得其反,造成孩子对书的厌恶。
当然,给孩子预留充足的阅读时间也是很有必要的。英国著名青少年文学大师艾登·钱伯斯认为,在所有影响阅读的因素中,阅读时间是第一位的。所以,家里要留出固定的阅读时间。比如每次作业完成之后,每个双休日的下午,每次睡觉之前,让孩子持续、安静地阅读半个小时。这样,到时间就阅读,幼小的心灵沉浸在另一个世界里,久而久之,就会形成阅读习惯,把阅读当成乐趣。
“与爸妈一起读书的方法我最容易接受”
孩子的模仿能力是很强的,孩子和父母一起读书,甚至一起读一本书,交流感受,可以让书香洋溢整个家庭。在调查过程中,我们发现,有25%的孩子喜欢亲子共读。“爸爸拿一个小时出来,跟我一起阅读一本书,给我讲解一些我不懂的词,这种方法我最容易接受。”“与妈妈一起读书,一起思考的方法我最容易接受。”孩子们直言不讳,道出了自己的心声。令人欣喜的是:家长们也认为,亲子共读是培养孩子读书兴趣的重要方式之一,真是不谋而合。
看看孩子们描写的亲子阅读的场面吧。
幸福一刻
六(11)班 朱新桐
我一直爱看书,经常为书和爸妈进行沟通交流,我清楚地记得,就因为那次沟通,让我爱上了文言小说。
晚上,我拿出了爸爸极力推荐的《三国演义》,听说其中“温酒斩华雄”挺精彩的,欲拜读拜读。看了半天,因是文言文,所以对文章情节也只是略知一二,问题却“溢”满脑海。我找来看报的爸爸,问:“既然关云长武功了得,为何不直接写他与华雄的武打场面,这样读起来不更脍炙人口吗?”爸爸推了推眼镜,说:“这里面其实写了‘其酒尚温’,简单一个‘尚’字,就形象地把关云长的武功高强体现出来。古文的魅力就是在这简洁精练,耐人寻味上,你可要好好品味品味啊!”我恍然大悟,对老爸拥有如此渊博的知识感到敬佩,赞道:“嗯,言之有理,言之有理,小女实在佩服,佩服啊!”父女俩的欢声笑语回荡在屋内,这和谐美好的画面让我觉得快乐,幸福。
幸福一刻
五(11)班 刘菲雅
星期天的午休,是我和妈妈一小时的亲子共读书时间。
今天,我们并肩坐在柔软的沙发上。我拿起《小公主》津津有味地品读起来,有趣而富有诗意的文字紧紧吸引着我们的眼球,我的心情也随着主人公的喜怒哀乐变化着。
正当我沉浸在故事里,妈妈突然发问:“你怎么看书中的主人公?”我心里早已经有答案,不假思索脱口而出:“她是一个敢于同恶人做斗争的好女孩。”妈妈却反驳道:“我认为她是一个有同情心的女孩。”这个问题搞得我们争论不休,最后我“一锤定音”:“她是一个好女孩。”妈妈笑了。“对,我们虽然表达不一样,但有异曲同工之妙。”我有一种前所未有的胜利感。
温馨的60分钟很快就过去了,我回味着那幸福的时光,我觉得我和妈妈真是心有灵犀一点通啊!
事实证明:如果能有一位值得信赖的、很有经验的成年阅读者帮助和示范,孩子会读得更多更流畅。共同讨论可以是随机的,饭桌上,散步时,逛超市,都可以讨论。讨论作品的人物,讨论作品透露的信息,讨论作者的语言等等。实际上,孩子在跟你交流的时候,他在回忆、整理、思考。孩子读书时的体会、快乐和你分享,孩子获得了精神的愉悦,表现欲得到了满足,这对提高孩子的阅读兴趣是大有裨益的。
“入睡前轮流朗读我最容易接受”
调查中,还有些孩子提到:最喜欢的就是“听爸爸、妈妈、老师讲故事,讲到处故意‘卖关子’,制造悬念,借机向我推荐这本书”的方法。这种可以激起孩子的好奇心,求知欲,很适合低、中年级学生。
让孩子天天大声读书,家长孩子轮流读给对方听,也是孩子喜欢的方法。有16%左右的同学提出:入睡前轮流朗读我最容易接受。美国教育家杰姆·特米里斯发明了一种阅读启蒙教学法,他认为父母应从孩子很小的时候就养成为孩子朗读的习惯,每天20分钟,持之以恒,孩子对阅读的兴趣便会在父母抑扬顿挫的朗读声中渐渐产生,孩子会逐渐领悟语句结构和词意神韵,产生想读书的愿望,并能初步具备广泛阅读的基础。为了调动朗读的积极性,还可以丰富朗读的形式,比如说分角色读,配乐朗读,对大一点的孩子,也可以找他们感兴趣的内容读给爸爸妈妈听,他们会更加积极主动。
“爸爸让我做读书笔记也让我受益很多。”“不动笔墨不读书”也是一种很好的读书方法,同时也是一种良好的读书习惯。特别是阅读一些经典文学作品的时候,一定要鼓励孩子做读书笔记。
“父母用鼓励、表扬的方法,我最容易接受”
“好孩子是夸出来的”,培养孩子的读书兴趣同样需要适时温馨的表扬激励。
15%左右的孩子提出:“爸妈用了一个记录表,把我每天读书的情况记录下来,一周以后,表现好的会得到一些小奖品。”“爸妈用鼓励、表扬的方法,我最容易接受。”不要吝啬,肯定孩子的努力吧,家长的一句赞美、一支钢笔、一块橡皮……对激发孩子潜力很有效果。
篇2
最近几天,嘟嘟老是咳嗽,她的老妈心疼极了,正好她老妈今天放假,这不,一大早就向嘟嘟的班主任打电话请假了。可是,嘟嘟并不情愿。“凭什么呀,上午我还有一节音乐课呢,(嘟嘟最喜欢上音乐课。)我不去,就不去!”嘟嘟撇起了小嘴。
可他老妈不吃这一套,硬是把她“拖”到了医院。
挂完了号,到医生那去,这都是小事,可他一听说要打针,彻底“崩溃”了。“哇!我不要打针,不要!!!!!”
一番“肺腑之言”后,终于“感动”了医生和老妈,可是......
嘟嘟接过药单子后,又开始“鬼哭狼嚎”了:“妈呀,这么多药,我何年何月才能吃完哪......”
篇3
到了黄四娘家一看,他心里暗暗地赞叹:这花可真多啊!这里真可以说是花的世界、花的海洋。旁边的小路都被这密密麻麻的花给遮住了。五颜六色的花特别漂亮,白的像雪,红的像霞,黄的像金……
花大的如碗口般,把花枝都压弯了,小的花如豆粒般,正在含苞欲放。
当微风一吹,花的香气扑鼻而来。花丛中,蝴蝶正在翩翩起舞,久久不愿离去。
篇4
雪川是我的发小兼闺蜜,我们现在都在清华上大学。
十二年前,雪川的父母出了车祸,不行撒手人寰,留下八岁的雪川在世上。那时,全年级第一的雪川成绩一落千丈,变成了倒数第一,性情也不如从前般活泼,变得沉默寡言,有些木讷。
身为她最好的朋友,我没有坐视不理。我采取的方式是:让她冷静一会,然后让她重拾信心,因为——他的父母在天上看着雪川,相信他们也不希望雪川继续消极下去。
令我没有想到的是,两个月后,雪川依旧消弭。我在下课的时候,决定找她谈话。
“雪川,你不能一直一蹶不振下去,苏叔叔和刘阿姨也不希望你这样。”我苦口婆心的劝说她,她却低着头,一语不发。“雪川,你说话呀,你以前不是一直缠着我,叽叽喳喳地说个不停吗?拿出你以前的勇气来呀!不要像个胆小鬼!不要这样懦弱!”我说着说着,雪川的眼角竟泛起了泪光,我意识到自己刚才的言语太过犀利了。“雪川,我是为你好,你不能再这样下去了!”我继续说道。之后,她终于开口说话了:“我不想吗?程姐姐,我只是,做不到。以前的我,有妈妈疼,有爸爸爱,现在呢?以前的我,随随便便都可以考一百分,现在的我,就算拼尽全力也只能考不及格。。。。。”“你可以换个角度看问题,你的爸爸妈妈虽然不在这世上了,但他们化作了你最喜欢的恒星,永远守护在你身边呐!”雪川仿佛被我一语点醒,又恢复了以前的活力。
篇5
关键词:语言;宗教色彩;京味
《文心雕龙.知音》篇说:“夫缀文者情动而辞发,观文者披文以入情。沿波讨源,虽幽必显。世远莫见其面,觇文辄见其心。”[1] 作为读者首先接触到的就是文学语言。因此每一个作家,在创作的过程中都视文学语言为自己的外衣,力求形成自己的语言特色。霍达在《穆斯林的葬礼》中展现了其独特的语言特色,下面将从宗教话语,京味语言两方面来论述。
一、宗教话语的杂糅
在《穆斯林的葬礼》中霍达以女性所特有的敏锐,细腻的手法,以自己独特的文化视角讲述生活在汉族中的回族人,他们极力保持本民族的生活习惯,抵制外来信仰的冲击,并以此来维护民族的独立,这与作者自身属于穆斯林是分不开的,巴尔扎克曾说:“小说,通常被认为是一个民族的秘史。”[2]从古至今,宗教作为一种“人性升华和放射,并客观化,对象化而形成的社会文化体系”在社会各方面的影响是深刻而巨大的。作者在文中极力渲染出浓郁的穆斯林色彩,使全文都笼罩在一种庄严的宗教氛围下,下面从意象“新月”、婚葬习俗、回民语言三方面来透视宗教话语杂糅下产生的独特的审美效果。
(一)“新月”的独特意蕴
回族自诞生之日起,就置身于汉文化的大海中,受其影响自不待言,但它的母族文化―伊斯兰文化具有强烈的宗教性,它注重体悟,强调把对现实世界的感知移置在想象的心灵空间,在精神性的追求中,对现实生活作出回应。因此在《穆斯林的葬礼》中,我们看到灵动的意象世界,它充满了别样的审美寄寓,传达出真实复杂的民族情怀。
“新月”可以说是全文最重要的意象。在伊斯兰文化中,“月”这一意象更多的承载着只属于它们的特定情怀。新月,系阿拉伯语“希拉勒”的意译,原指上弦月,俗称月牙。天文学上称为“朔”,指月球运行通过太阳和地球之间时的月相,其象征含义是上升、新生、幸福、吉祥。世界穆斯林将观测所见新月作为斋戒月封斋和开斋的时间标志,《古兰经》中记载,新月是人事和朝觐的计时,斋月是新月出现那天开始的,开斋亦由阿訇登楼望月寻看新月而定时日,指月两开的奇迹也和月亮息息相关。 “回族把新月作为伊斯兰教的象征,每座清真寺的顶端,都有一弯新月,它象征着崇高,清净和希望,这是千百年来穆斯林民族历史发展中代代相传的理念。在《古兰经》中多次提到月亮,有的篇章就叫“月亮”,在看来,新月代表一种新生力量,从新月到月圆,标志着穆斯林摧枯拉朽,战胜黑暗,圆满功行,光明世界。”[3]“月”是神性的象征,寓意幸福美好。如:
“观新月,弯弯的,尖尖的,不等落日余晖完全隐没,已经出现在西南方向绯红色的天空中了。”
“西南方向,新月升起来了,弯弯的,尖尖的,清清的,亮亮的,多么美丽的新月!”
文本中出现的“新月”正是穆斯林所追求的“崇高”“希望”“幸福”,“新月”不再是单纯的月亮,也并不只是名字的符号,而是附加了宗教文化的内蕴,成为一种神性的象征。
(二)婚葬习俗
“世上没有哪个宗教像伊斯兰教那样有广泛的民族性,也没有哪一种宗教像伊斯兰教那样世俗化。”[4]作者在小说中对悠远的穆斯林的历史传统,宗教习俗,教规戒律,饮食文化,民族文化心理都做了如数家珍般的描述,特别是对两次葬礼和婚礼都做了工笔般的细节描写,但作者并没有过分渲染这一特定民族宗教的“神秘感”,而是把这种展示注入生活中去,这必然使小说的人物性格,思想情感,打上民族宗教的烙印。如对葬礼的描述:
“速葬,薄葬,是穆斯林的美德,伊斯兰教的葬礼是世界上各种族,各宗教中最简朴的葬礼,没有精美的棺木,没有华贵的寿衣,没有花里胡哨的纸车,纸轿,纸人,纸马,没有旗,锣,伞,扇的仪仗,没有吹吹打打的乐队,也没有漫天抛散的纸钱……一心归主的穆斯林,不需要任何身外之物来粉饰自己。”
“黄土无情地埋下来,掩没了“拉赫”,填平了深坑,一座四面呈梯形的新坟,出现在梁家的墓地上……
身怀绝技的梁亦清含恨而死后的薄葬,速葬,与其朴实性格相一致,他不单单是一个人,在他的身上更多的彰显出一种民族精神,作者在文中运用大量的篇幅淋漓尽致地展现了回族人民的葬礼,使读者深切地感受到伊斯兰教下独特的异域文化,使全书弥漫上神秘的宗教色彩。
(三)回民语言的运用
众所周知,回族是一个以汉语为母语的民族,但由于其伊斯兰信仰的特殊性,在宗教生活中使用阿拉伯语和波斯语,这就形成了在民族日常生活中还保留着一些与宗教相关的词汇。这些词汇在汉语中并不存在,而只以阿拉伯语和波斯语的音译汉语表述,霍达将这些音译词引入写作中,并对其进行解释,表现出她对回族历史的特有体验。例如:
对非穆斯林称“卡斐尔”,媒人称“古瓦西”孤儿称“耶梯目” 遗体称“埋体”朋友同胞称“朵斯堤”尸床称“水溜子”等等
这些回民语言的引入,源于霍达对本民族语言的深切体悟,其对语言的恪守,正是对民族文化延续的渴望。这些特殊话语的运用,使全文更加具有宗教蕴味,在这种宗教话语的杂糅下,使读者更深刻的了解穆斯林这一古老民族。
二、京味语言的运用
蕴含鲜明的地域特色是许多小说和作家为人铭记的原因之一,张爱玲的上海情调,沈从文的湘西风情,赵树理的山西土俗,冯骥才的天津方言,都是如此。霍达对北京市民语言的熟悉,使她在《穆斯林的葬礼》中创造性地运用北京市民俗白浅易的的口语,用老舍的话来说,就是“把顶平凡的话词调动得生动有力”烧出白话的“原味儿”来,使语言讲究,简单而又精致,有力,作者成功的把语言的通俗性与文学性融合起来,使语言干净利落,鲜活纯熟,简单却不粗俗,在这其中不但深含着作者独特的体味和创造而且还渗透着浓浓的北京文化。
在《穆斯林的葬礼》中作者采用方言入句,使作品呈现出鲜明的地方风土人情。如:
“北京人爱吃面,能做出许许多多的名目,炸酱面,麻酱面,热汤面,一和汤面,汆子面……都不算什么稀奇,比较讲究的就算是打卤面了;姑妈做的打卤面就更为讲究,她把面抻得又细又长又匀溜又筋道,捞在碗里,浇上又香又浓的卤汁,那里边有香菇,口蘑,木耳,虾人,黄花菜,玉兰片,像流动的“金绞蜜”琥珀……”
一个“打卤面”就突显出浓郁的地方特色,又细又长的面,又香又浓的卤汁让人垂涎欲滴,承载着丰厚的京味文化的内蕴,使读者在随着故事情节波荡起伏的同时又接受着文化的熏陶,沉醉其间。作者这种生动贴切的语言运用的自然生动而不勉强,从而使作品获得了一种丰厚的内在艺术力量。
另外,地方语言的运用又最能表现人物的性格特征。在《穆斯林的葬礼》的人物对话中,跃动着大量的北京方言词,如:
“外国的风俗有什么好?”韩太太面带不悦,瞪了韩子奇一眼,“吃吧你!又显摆你多知多懂?” (显摆:炫耀,讽刺意味很浓)
姑妈觉得挺不落忍:“别价,哪儿能刚来了就走哇?”(别价jia:不要,别)
“回头,我跟你韩伯伯也提提这事儿,行里的人儿他都熟,要是用得着的话,叫他言语声儿!”(言语声儿;说声儿)
最有代表性的是“甭”字的使用。我们可以随手拈来一些例子:
“甭问我,既然你们爷儿俩都商量好了,妈还敢挡你的道儿?”
“甭给我,我没地方搁”
“大姐,您甭听她瞎咧咧!天塌砸众人,又不是咱们一家儿的事儿,甭怕!哪能拍屁股走人?”
几个“甭”字的使用,不仅符合人物的身份,而且使其性格跃然纸上,更加鲜活的呈现在读者的面前,这种京味语言的巧妙运用一方面将梁君璧作为小市民尖酸刻薄的一面暴露无疑,另一方面又暗示出她浅薄的文化根基和与至亲们的格格不入。霍达正是凭借着对人物的准确把握加之北京语言的驾驭自如,才将读者眼前的人物形象刻画的栩栩如生,入木三分。
以上这些地道的方言的运用,使语言更加具体化,产生了一种特殊的表达效果。同时“在朴实无华的语言中不时地,适当地插入一些方言词语,就像是在平静的水面上扔下几块小石子,激起了阵阵涟漪,形成了层层波澜,从而大大增强了语言的感染力,表现力,产生了形象,生动,简捷的艺术效果。”[5]
三、结语
在《穆斯林的葬礼》中,霍达以悲情语言的独特笔法叙述文本,与此同时宗教话语的杂糅使其蒙上了神秘的外衣,就文本自身而言产生了一种悲天悯人的气氛,使读者在这神秘的悲剧色彩的感召下迅速进入文本。基于此,京味语言的巧妙运用,增加了作品的真实性和质朴性,使作品更接近于“真”。霍达以其特有的叙述话语,以宗教文化为创作底蕴,从独特的文化视角,为我们谱写了一首生与死,爱与恨,凄与美的挽歌。
参考文献:
[1]汪曾w:关于小说语言(札记)。
[2]阳姣丽:略论《穆斯林的葬礼的悲剧意蕴》, 湖南科技学院学报,2007年3期。
[3]p非:《女性形象的文化解读―比较穆斯林的葬礼和金锁记》,语文学刊,2007年12期。
篇6
关键词:网络广告;富媒体广告;发展趋势
中图分类号:J524 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1005-5312(2012)33-0286-01
一、活动提升读者忠实度
一个媒体的受众“黏性”是衡量媒体影响力的有力标尺。在互联网时代,受众面对的是成千上万的媒体,媒体间的竞争硝烟四起。如何“黏”住受众的注意力,培养他们的阅读定势,使其成为忠实受众,是当下媒体竞争中的关键要素。
2010年12月底,《南京日报》的教育类副刊《成长周刊》成立了小记者团,在南京青奥组委会大力支持下,打造成以宣传2014年南京青奥会为己任的南京日报青奥小观察员俱乐部,目前小记者已经遍布南京市近百所学校。小记者们先后开展了百余场新闻采访、社会实践活动,如零距离对话两院院士、到天生桥植青奥林等等活动,由《南京日报》资深记者全程陪同辅导,活动后小记者作品择优发表在南京日报《成长周刊》上。这类公益活动针对性强,报社与小记者、读者实现了全方位的联动,不但推动了报纸的发行量,更为《南京日报》带来了年轻的读者群体。
媒体策划优质活动可以有效地把读者关注度从媒体的内容产品延伸出去,巩固核心受众、凝聚松散受众、吸引边缘受众。①报刊举办各类公益、娱乐、服务性的活动,提高读者的参与度,为读者提供有效的“增值服务”,成为报刊凝聚忠实读者的一张“王牌”。
二、活动创造“两个效益”
报刊的读者活动,有利于塑造报纸社会形象、展示报纸个性特色,在报纸经营中也有着不可替代的作用。通过开发和挖掘,不少报刊主办的活动获得了较好的“经济效益”。“此类活动,实际上就是把经营读者落到实处:为读者找到消费对象,为厂商找到目标人群。”②一些业界专家将活动营销与报纸的卖广告、搞发行相提并论,称其为报纸的第三次售卖。
近年来,在国内一线城市的房展会上,不少海外项目吸引了众多投资者的目光,在今年北京春季房展会上来自30多个国家和地区的约130个项目成为房展会的重头戏。为了让更多的南京市民了解海外房地产项目,帮助他们实现海外置业,《南京日报》策划、主办了第一届海外房展博览会。推出美国、加拿大、澳大利亚、德国、荷兰、瑞士、西班牙、斯洛伐克、塞浦路斯、新加坡等十余个国家的近千套房地产项目,为海外楼盘和市民之间搭建了一座便捷的桥梁,为市民提供充裕的买房选择空间。
在报刊这类举办的活动,常常包含着报刊与生俱来的特殊功能——责任感和公信力。如在《南京日报》主办的“2011南京日报慈善公益行动启动仪式”暨“2010南京地产风云榜颁奖盛典”上,南京一大批房地产企业纷纷解囊,与南京日报慈善公益行动一起扶贫济困,为困难群体送去温暖。
报刊的重点活动策划将“社会效益”和“经济效益”结合在一起,增强了报刊的权威性和公信力。资深报人崔恩卿说:“社会活动是报纸营销的一个手段,可以使报纸迅速在特定人群或特定地点形成前所未有的影响,使报纸的品牌深入人心。③
三、活动创新版面优势
在自媒体环境中,人人都是记者。报刊是否能手握高质量的创作队伍,版面内容是否能“快人一步”、“高人一筹”,是其生存发展的重大问题。
2011年《金陵瞭望》杂志社发起了“南京市人文绿都城市形象摄影大赛”,活动以南京秀美的自然风光、深厚的文化底蕴、优良的人居环境为拍摄对象,用照片反映出南京充满活力的经济、社会发展面貌。通过此次大赛,杂志社获得了近3000张精美图片,全市300多位高水准的摄影师成为《金陵画报》的合作摄影师。2012年《金陵瞭望》又与南京市纪委、监察局联合主办了“一品青莲”首届南京廉政杂文暨小小说大赛征文,至6月征稿结束,共收到全国各地来稿2400余篇,为《金陵瞭望》的创作队伍建设增添了一批“新鲜血液”。在建立优质创作队伍的过程中,编辑还摸索出建立作者QQ群、休闲笔会等一系列方法,对作品、人才进行拉动。
在互联网时代,报刊不能只做版面工作,只由编辑唱主角,还需要读者的互动参与,才能让版面更加生动,更有影响力。注重报刊的读者活动,真正实现读者与媒体的双向沟通,是推进报刊版面质量、发行总量、广告增量的有效手段,为报刊建设成为新媒体环境中的强势媒体提供有力保障。
注释:
①徐建华.浅谈品牌活动对提升教育类报刊影响力的作用[J].新闻记者,2011年第04期.
篇7
【Key word】 English reading; Schema; interactive; process; model
【摘 要】 阅读能力的培养是英语教学中重要的一环。现代英语教学法认为英语阅读不是被动地接受信息,而是主动化、个人化、而且复杂化的过程。阅读能力强的人,不仅用“自下而上”的技巧去了解文章里的单词与句子,也善于用自身所具备的知识与经验,“自上而下”地推理、预测、并分析文章。相互作用模式和图式理论强调:阅读要建立背景知识,阅读中要训练推测、分析等认知技巧。因此,本文建议:注重整体性的阅读教学,鼓励学生主动认识单词,让学生读完文章后自己提出问题以及谨慎挑选阅读材料。
【关键词】 英语阅读;图式;相互作用;过程;模式
1. Introduction
Reading skill is clearly one of the most important skills, in fact, in many instances around the world we may argue that reading is the most important foreign language skill, particularly in cases where learners have to read English material for their own specialist subject. In the case of education in China, the teaching of English is a major classroom activity not only because it is easier for non-English-speaking teachers to supply an English written text to be read than a spoken one to be understood, but because only reading skill plus a small amount of writing skill is required in the entrance exam which most learners wish to pass. That’s why this paper reviews articles on the research of theoretical and pedagogical issues in reading, hoping to get some inspiration and integrate it effectively into the English reading teaching.
The reading process has famously been described as a "psycholinguistic guessing game"[1] P142 in which efficient readers minimize dependence on visual detail by utilizing background knowledge to make predictions and check these against the text. In this paper, based on the analysis of Schema Theory, the paper will explore its origin, theory and guidance of schema, in the hope of providing some hints to the improvement of teaching and learning.
The paper begins this essay by showing the teaching problems in reading. In the second part of the essay the paper reviews some significant pedagogical and theoretical issues in reading, including Bottom-up Model, Top-down Model and Interactive Model. Then, the Schema Theory is introduced to suggest or accept that something is true so that it can be used as the basis for an argument or discussion and the methods of reading teaching are reviewed. In the third part of this essay the paper presents several recent approaches to teach reading, especially in English context. Finally, several recommendations are made for instructional practices based on what the writer has learned from the literature review.
2. Teaching problems in reading
Reading is an important curriculum. But the traditional teaching method used now does not keep up with the essence of the reading process. The teaching activity is mechanical and cannot meet different needs from learners with several levels and different personality types [2] P68.The main teaching problems in reading are listed as follows:
2.1 Many different contexts for reading instruction
Specialists often seek insight and possible approaches from well-established language theories and researches. However, our language theory may not be completely applied to foreign language reading process because of different situations, motivations and perspectives of foreign language readers.
The basic differences are: first, learners do not have a fully developed phonological system when they begin to read. Therefore, the Bottom-up Models that depend on the learner’s encoding of the text into phonological symbols or internal speech can not be applied directly to the process; second, learners are adolescent or adult learners already literate in native language. They have relatively highly developed native language vocabulary, syntactic knowledge, topical and rhetorical schemata, and varying native language reading strategies. Still for learners, the cultural differences can make the activation of appropriate schemata difficult. The complexity in contexts must lead researchers and teachers to be cautious with their results and with possible suggestions from native language reading contexts.
2.2 Few reading instruction curricula for text structure awareness
A number of studies have persuasively argued that learners’ awareness of formal aspects of language and genre structure enhances their comprehension and inferring ability; [3] P67 however, there are few reading instruction curricula focusing on text structure awareness as a consistent component. Nor is the ability to discuss and teach awareness of text structure well developed in a variety of teaching contexts.
2.3 The difficulty of developing as large a vocabulary in learners as in average
native language academic students
Although reading instructors recognize the importance of a large vocabulary, language skills, academic ability and background knowledge, they admit it is actually impossible for learners to compete with average native language academic students in the development of vocabulary by the end of the secondary school. And the instructors do not improve the method of teaching.
2.4 Reading a lot not being emphasized in most reading teaching
Although extensive reading is useful in learning to read and beneficial to many additional language learning, it is not the central component of reading instruction which stresses the grammar teaching. Teachers still translate all sentences one by one.
In traditional reading teaching, the reading process is described as the “Bottom-up” Model. And the reading activity is also regarded as the process of decoding written symbols, which reforms the author’s thought. So, the traditional reading teaching always emphasizes the grammar. Teachers usually ask learners prepare lessons before class through looking up new words, pronunciation, translation, synonym and so
on.[4] P67
2.5 Reading strategies not easy to be taught
The ability to use appropriate reading strategies and knowing when to use them according to different reading purposes and tasks are very crucial in reading comprehension. However, teaching learners to use strategies that are relevant to varying needs and contexts has been proven to be extremely difficult. Teachers have to make learners into strategic readers rather than teach them reading strategies, which is a major educational dilemma for contexts. [5] P99
Why do these teaching dilemmas exist? In the author’s opinion, both learners and teachers do not realize the essences of reading clearly. So we should review the theoretical and pedagogical issues in reading.
3. Theoretical and pedagogical issues in reading
Researches on reading in a second language, mainly in English as a foreign language, and efforts to improve reading instruction have remarkably grown in the last four decades, especially in the recent 20 years. The following section focuses on different visions of reading process, Schema Theory, and reading strategies.
3.1 Reading process
After collecting and observing the problems arising in the process of reading and understanding, experts and scholars both at home and abroad made plenty of study and demonstration. The following three are the most frequently referred to in reading processing, that is, Bottom-up Model, Top-down Model and Interactive Model.
3.1.1 Bottom- up model
Reading was traditionally viewed as a passive or receptive process in which the reader attempted to decode the intended meaning of the author via recognizing the letters and words as meaningful units. In bottom-up process, or text-based model reading is a process that the reader constructs the text from the smallest units: recogni-zing letters and words, working out sentence structures.[6]P51-52 Carroll defines the bottom-up approach as “ proceeds from the lowest level (the phonological level) to the highest level (the lexical level) of processing in such a way that all of the lower levels of processing operate without influence from the higher levels.” That is to say, the identification of phonemes is not affected by the lexical, syntactic or discourse levels; the retrieval of word is not affected by syntactic or discourse levels and so on. We have some to doubt that a strict Bottom-up Model will provide a comprehensive amount of how we understand language. [7] P53The reader was merely a recipient of information from the printed page and brought nothing to the text. No real interaction took place between the writer and the reader. In brief, it focuses on detailed linguistic forms instead of the meaning of the whole text.
3.1.2 Top-down Model
However, modern research on reading has found the reading process active rather than passive as well as inpidualized and complicated. Reading theorists have proposed many different visions of reading act. In top-down process, or reader-based model the reader makes guesses about the content of a text. Readers draw on their own intelligence and experience-the predictions they can make, based on the schemata they have acquired-to understand the text. [8]P54 In this process, comprehension must take place first and the identification of words comes second. In top-down process, readers use their background knowledge to work on meaning.
In the Top-down Model of reading, Smith and Goodman [9] P252-253 maintain that readers sample the textual cues, make use of redundancies, make hypotheses about what is coming next, activate background knowledge to make predictions about the ongoing discourse, and confirm (or reject) the predictions. However, poor readers are word-bound and unable to use context when they are reading. This reading process is called a “psycholinguistic model” of reading.
The influence of Goodman and Smith’s work led to a new era in reading theory. Research in reading has been done within the psycholinguistic framework. For example, the earliest psycholinguistic model of reading suggests that comprehension results from the interaction of conceptual abilities, background knowledge and process strategies. In addition, many pedagogical models, which advocate pre-reading activities to activate learners’ predicting skills, are also based on this “top-down” view of reading as a psycholinguistic process.
Recently, however, there is a reaction to the overemphasis on top-down view of reading and a reconsideration of low-level processing in context. Severe observations about the top-down view of reading have come from work by reading researchers. Smith, [10] P156 for instance, stresses that readers garner the information from the page rather than through the top-down process. Some studies in reading have found that less proficient readers are word-bound precisely because they are not yet efficient in bottom-up process. No amount of guessing will overcome this deficiency and lead to automatic word recognition. Experts also claim that readers, having weaker linguistic competence, need to attend more to “bottom-up” features than to read.
3.1.3 Interactive Model
Both the models mentioned above have their limitations. In the bottom-up process, if the learner focuses on words and sentences in the text and just prefers to
receive the message, he may misunderstand the writer. There are always dangers of mismatch. The top-down process neglects the importance of lower-level knowledge that the text requires of the reader. So, strict “top-down” theories of reading have recently been replaced in popularity by more “interactive” models of reading. Several reading researchers have found that efficient and effective readers use both top-down and bottom-up strategies operating interactively to aid comprehension. [11] P157-158
The interactive process, which emphasizes reading comprehension, is a disposing
process of language. Meanwhile, never should one overlook the importance of the use of background knowledge and reasoning. The whole process of reading should be a
process during which the bottom-to-top model and top-to-bottom model work alternatively and interact with each other. In this whole process successful readers continue to make use of cues at all levels, from graphphonic to schematic [12]. This Interactive Model reveals the importance of the schemata in the reading process.[13] Many experts and scholars both at home and abroad consider that this point of view balances the relationship between the former two models. Good reading is not a print-free guessing
Game.
3.2 Schema Theory
Schema Theory is a major issue in reading. Schema Theory is based on the notion that past experiences lead to the creation of mental frameworks that help us make sense of new experiences [14] P201, which has been found playing a very important role in reading comprehension.
Schema Theory, positing an Interactive Model of reading in which bottom-up process and top-down process of reading occur at the same time, describes how a learner’s knowledge is integrated in memory and used in higher-level comprehension process. [15] P201 The four-fold piding method roughly pides schemata into the following four categories: Linguistic Schema-the ability to use language, especially a foreign one; Content Schema-background knowledge and so on (culture, world knowledge, concepts);Organizational Schema-the structure of reading material and Strategy schema: monitoring behavior on reading process which relates to reading skills, speed, text predictions. What can we obtain from those analyses to the actual reading teaching activities? At word level, we know that the key factor in the process of reading is some key words that can make our learners understand the general idea of the text by using their already existing schemata. For those that learner-readers do not have, the pre-reading activity is absolutely needed. Teachers can ask some questions in relation to the background of the on-going listening text.
However, the pre-reading activity is only part of the solution to the problem of lacking relevant schema. The main problem lies in a good understanding on the target language culture and society. This may be seen as having a same tone in talking about translation theory, while this is the same function that plays in the fact that a good understanding of the cultures of the target-language is the base of fully understanding their languages. Before the differences between nations and countries becoming vague or disappearing, this factor works. One’s experience, after all, is limited. So there is a need for us to encourage our learners to read more about foreign culture (for example, extensive reading) and pay more attention to the differences between the foreign and the things and customs at home.
What is more important is how to stimulate learners’ schemata properly? This relates to the choice of reading text for our learners. Deep cultural related articles should be avoided to the preliminary learners and the process of reading is on the basis of step by step. On the other hand, reading skill at the hand of learners also plays an important role in the process of schema-stimulation. A good reader should be a good clue-seeker, who can get the writing purpose from small hints among sentences sensibly, who is easy to resonate with the text writer, and who is also a predictor in guessing the contents the text will show next. This stresses the reading process is an active activity, instead of a passive one. An active reader uses his or her own knowledge to perceive the intention of the reading text actively against his or her schemata and then finds out the proper connection between the two.
Of course, there are some disadvantages in recent researches of Schema Theory’s application. Now, what we talked most about the Schema Theory is the Content Schema, and of course, this is the common factor that affects the result of reading. However, the other three also have significant effects on our reading teaching, which we would not ignore. Linguistic Schema refers to the ability to use language. Organizational Schema stresses the logic form of a reading article and the Strategy Schema refers to the skills that a learner mastered. The four kinds of schemata are related with one another and the absent of one would cause the understanding inefficiently. With suitable instructions, the learners can develop the four kinds of schemata in a balanced way and only in this way could they reach the maximum result in the process of reading comprehension.
After learning the Schema Theory, we should get more realization about the objectives of reading instruction.
The reading instruction is designed to enable learners to develop basic comprehension skills so that they can read and understand texts of a general nature, to use reading to increase their general knowledge, to decide about their reading purpose and adapt their methods of reading according to this, and to develop the ability to read critically.
The reading instruction should teach basic reading comprehension skills, especially real-life reading skills such as reading for gist and reading for information, develop flexible reading skills(varied according to purpose)and critical reading skills, develop the learners’ knowledge of vocabulary or idiom, reinforce (or even) present certain grammatical features and act as a stimulus for oral or written work later on.
转贴于 4. Recent approaches to teach reading
The following is recent approaches to teach reading:
4.1 Building background knowledge in the pre-reading phase
Schema Theory has shown that successful readers use prior knowledge of the content of the text to aid comprehension. Therefore, a recent approach to teach reading emphasizes pre-reading preparation of learners in a reading lesson plan. Working with learners before they begin reading a text helps them get more involved.[16] P78 First, learners learn background information to activate useful schemata. Understanding the text’s beginning, learners can then recognize textual landmarks as they meet them. Then, confident learners are more likely to take risks in guessing words’ meanings and anticipate text content. They will be better strategy users while they read. Just as Tierney and Pearson put on the top of the eight suggestions for improving classroom practices, “Be sure to find out your students’ prior knowledge of the topic and text genre before beginning to read,” intelligent selection and preparation before reading can make our students’ reading more efficient and enjoyable.
4.2 Teaching met cognitive skills while reading
The persity of the cognitive process in action as learners read, as well as learners’ awareness of them can be used during the reading act to develop comprehension. The identification of mentalistic functions through the use of self-reflection procedures can facilitate the reading process. In the study of Rod Ellis [17] P86-87, learners, after being trained to “self-observe” and to “think-aloud”, became aware of inefficient processing habits and were able to replace them with strategies that had been taught to them in class.
Teaching the skill of contextual guessing may improve reading comprehension and speed.
4.3 Using cloze to teach reading
The great value of the cloze procedure in language testing has long been recognized. Since using cloze for the teaching of reading gives learners practice in the essential skill of guessing from context, the development of the ability to guess meaning from context is seen as the key to successful reading. This context includes not only the words on the page, but also the reader’s language knowledge about the subject matter of the text being read. By deleting words from a passage on a regular basis, cloze trains learners’ guessing strategies, thus allowing learners, then teachers, and their peers a chance to help learners increase their guessing ability. This increased ability may lead to greater comprehension and also to faster reading speed. Reading speed accelerates because better guessing skill means readers need to spend less time decoding words.
Although the reading teaching has been improved recently, many learners still have difficulty in applying the reading skills while they are reading. We can find it from some examples of English text in postgraduate entrance examination.
2004 Text 2[18] P116
Over the past century, all kinds of unfairness and discrimination have been condemned or made illegal. But one insidious form continues to thrive: alphabetism. This, for those as yet unaware of such a disadvantage, refers to discrimination against those whose surnames begin with a letter in the lower half of the alphabet.
It has long been known that a taxi firm called AAAA cars has a big advantage over Zodiac cars when customers thumb through their phone directories. Less well known is the advantage that Adam Abbott has in life over Zoë Zysman. English names are fairly evenly spread between the halves of the alphabet. Yet a suspiciously large number of top people have surnames beginning with letters between A and K.
Thus the American president and vice-president have surnames starting with B and C respectively; and 26 of George Bush’s predecessors (including his father) had surnames in the first half of the alphabet against just 16 in the second half. Even more striking, six of the seven heads of government of the G7 rich countries are alphabetically advantaged (Berlusconi, Blair, Bush, Chirac, Chrétien and Koizumi). The world’s three top central bankers (Greenspan, Duisenberg and Hayami) are all close to the top of the alphabet, even if one of them really uses Japanese characters. As are the world’s five richest men (Gates, Buffett, Allen, Ellison and Albrecht).
Can this merely be coincidence? One theory, dreamt up in all the spare time enjoyed by the alphabetically disadvantaged, is that the rot sets in early. At the start of the first year in infant school, teachers seat pupils alphabetically from the front, to make it easier to remember their names. So short-sighted Zysman junior gets stuck in the back row, and is rarely asked the improving questions posed by those insensitive teachers. At the time the alphabetically disadvantaged may think they have had a lucky escape. Yet the result may be worse qualifications, because they get less inpidual attention, as well as less confidence in speaking publicly.
The humiliation continues. At university graduation ceremonies, the ABCs proudly get their awards first; by the time they reach the Zysmans most people are literally having a ZZZ. Shortlists for job interviews, election ballot papers, lists of conference speakers and attendees: all tend to be drawn up alphabetically, and their recipients lose interest as they plough through them.
The examinee can grasp the main idea of the article through the extensive reading easily.
In the first paragraph, the sentence--But one insidious form continues to thrive: alphabetism. This, for those as yet unaware of such a disadvantage, refers to discrimination against those whose surnames begin with a letter in the lower half of the alphabet- mentions the phenomenon which the author emphasizes. If readers can realize the word “But” which is stressed obviously, then it is possible to infer that the second and third paragraphs of the article surely prove the first section through massive examples. Then the second and third paragraphs can be skip-read and does not need to be examined carefully.
Comprehending the topic sentence is a good method to hold a paragraph. When readers read the following article, if readers can hold a paragraph’s general idea through utilizing the strategy-seeking the topic sentence, then it is extremely easy to see the first sentence in the fourth paragraph--Can this merely be coincidence?, as well as the last sentence--Yet the result may be worse qualifications, because they get less inpidual attention, as well as less confidence in speaking publicly-- a transitional sentence. Readers can know the fourth paragraph is for explaining the kinds of phenomenon, its origin and the consequences it creates.
In the fifth paragraph, readers also act according to the first sentence--The humiliation continues--and extrapolate that the full text will give further example to disclose the phenomenon of alphabetism lying in human society generally.
Through the above elaboration, readers may realize we cannot read effectively just by grasping sufficient glossary and grammar knowledge, because our memory is limited. We can not take note of the macro structure of the text if we pay more attention to some partial information. [19] P102-103 But we can hold the whole text by reasonably grasping the paragraph’s structure, the skip-reading, as well as advanced reading extrapolation. Then we comprehend the whole text after reading these five topic sentences.
From the above example, we can see that the design of the examination’s questions is by no means to inspect the learner’s response to the glossary. Therefore, the key point of enhancing reading lies in the fact that learners must clearly know the essence of reading process. Learners should dare to use each reading skill to solve the problem. Only daring to attempt and attempting industriously can learners have the opportunity to experience the result. So, in the author’s opinion, taking the following recommendations can help to improve reading instruction and make the instruction depend on the learners’ needs and teaching objectives.
5. Recommendations for teaching reading
5.1 Holistic reading instruction
The research by Devine, [20] P99 clearly shows that gains on discrete point grammar and vocabulary tests correlate negatively with increasing reading proficiency. That is, if language instruction is to have a positive impact on reading performance, that instruction should be holistic or integrative rather than discrete-point skills oriented. Constant close attention to details like pronunciation, vocabulary items, and grammatical points in each sentence does not reinforce skills, which are crucial to efficient reading and comprehension. In the reading classroom, the teacher should not rely on repetition and drill of pronunciation, word identification, vocabulary and grammar structures because these activities may only prepare learners for discrete point tests instead of real reading, and will not aid learners in developing reading competence.
Holistic reading instruction should be emphasized in the teaching of English reading. The teacher should design the corresponding reading curriculum in order to train the ability of holistic reading. The essential target of the trainings that enable learners to manoeuvre the scheme knowledge they have and strengthens the ability of forecast and proving. The ability of forecast is most important. Teachers should teach learner how to find out the topic word/key word in a certain sentence and the topic sentence and topic paragraph in a certain passage.
A holistic reading instruction must be communicative, too. Therefore, the teacher should provide linguistically interesting and situationally appropriate language samples. This might be accomplished through the use of tapes, dialogues, and even carefully screened reading materials which even learners with low language proficiency can follow.
Reading tests should be holistic and integrative, too. They should require learners to use a variety of linguistic and nonlinguistic information in their attempt to understand meaning. The holistic reading instruction can combine the discourse analysis, linguistic information and ability of communication together. [21]
5.2 Reader-generated questions
Questioning has long been used in reading as a tool to facilitate comprehension or after reading in an effort to test comprehension. However, “other-imposed” type of questioning used by the writer or editor of a text, or by the teacher, interferes with the reader’s own agenda as well as with his reading pleasure. David Nunan[22]P99also remarks that teacher-generated questions tend to weaken the learners’ comprehension since the learners’ course evaluation often depends more on their answers than on their comprehension. These findings suggest that the traditional question approach limits learners’ comprehension by having them comprehend only what the questions ask for, the implication being that readers comprehend in a different manner and more naturally when questions are not imposed by others.
5.3 Encouragement of the automaticity of word recognition
Automaticity of word recognition is what foreign language readers are lack of. Therefore, teachers should have learners read as much as possible to develop automaticity. The role of extensive reading is crucial in this respect.
Learners need to read extensively. Longer concentrated periods of silent reading build vocabulary and structural awareness, develop automaticity, enhance background knowledge, improve comprehension skills and promote confidence and motivation. In short, learners learn to read by reading a lot.
5.4 Careful selection of reading materials
Teachers must treat beginning and advanced learners differently as they approach reading materials. Widdowson [23] P135 advocates that preparation to read authentic materials must begin at the intermediate level. Besides, experts [24] P135 find that the more hierarchical the organization of a text, the better the comprehension, recall, and retention of readers. Therefore, teachers should select texts with a very obvious rhetorical organization to cater to learners’ need for clarity. Examples of such discourse patterns in English might be problem-soluting, comparison, and cause-effect expository formats.
Widdowson[25] P135advocates “narrow reading” as another means of selecting text. He argues that the more familiar the reader is with the text, the more comprehension is facilitated. Teachers can develop both reading comprehension and learner self-confidence by giving learners the opportunity to narrow their reading choices to several texts by the same author or dealing with the same context matter.
6. Conclusion
The instruction of reading has often been the main activity in many English contexts. Reviewing so much theoretical issues and instructional literature in reading, understanding the strength and weakness of various approaches to teach reading, and realizing some teaching problems in reading context, the author recommends the reading curriculum should become a learner-centred curriculum. The holistic reading instruction and cognitive skills should be emphasized while reading. The recommendations made here may not be sufficient to meet all the instructional needs of reading. But, it can tell us to realize that the English teacher’s responsibility is to get learners to read as much as possible effectively and enjoyably.
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[2] 沈锦坤 任务型教学法在大学英语阅读教学中的应用[J] 中国成人教育,2005,(3)
[3] 晏微微 吴兵乐 教师在大学英语阅读策略训练中的作用[J] 四川教育学院学报, 2005(3)
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[6] 谢徐萍 相互作用模式及其外语阅读教学的启示[J]。高教探索,2005(3)
[7] David W. Carroll Psychology of Language[M]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press Heinle & Heinle/Thomson Learning Asia 2000
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[9] David Nunan Second Language Teaching and Learning [M] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press Heinle & Heinle/Thomson Learning Asia 2001
[10] 胡春洞 戴忠信 英语阅读论[M] 广西教育出版社 1998
[11] 同[10]
[12] 葛炳芳res.qzhi.com.cn/detail/632763173150000000/213001.html [Z]
[13] Nunan. D, Designing Tasks for the communicative classroom.[M] Cambridge University Press
[14] 同[9]
[15] 同[9]
[16] 邬穗萍 运用图式理论提高学生英语阅读水平[J] 成都行政学院学报,
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[17] Rod Ellis Second Language Acquisition[M] 上海外语教育出版社,2005
[18] 考研命题研究组 张剑 历年考研英语{新大纲修订版}真题解析及复习
思路[Z] 新华出版社,2005
[19] 罗钱军 语篇宏观结构分析在阅读理解中的应用[J] 祈州师范学院学报 2005,(4)
[20] Devine, J.P. Carrel, and E Eskey (eds). 1987 Research in Reading in English as a Second Language.[M] Wshington, DC; Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
[21] 同[12]
[22] David Nunan The Learner-Centred Curriculum[M] 上海外语教育出版2001
[23] 束定芳 庄智象 现代外语教学-理论,实践与方法[M] 上海外语教育出版社 1996
[24] 同[23]
篇8
关键词: 英语报刊阅读 辅助教学 教学模式
一、高中英语教学开发阅读报刊英语资源的必要性
目前,英语课堂教学主要围绕教材展开,信息量少,语言输入有限,不利于知识的扩展,也跟不上当前高考对学生词汇量的要求。从高考来看,试卷涵盖大量词汇,因此要阅读有关现代生活、社会、文化、科技的文章,提高获取信息和处理信息的能力。而制约学生阅读能力的关键就在于词汇量的不足及接近现代生活的阅读材料的匮乏。因此,多渠道扩大学生的阅读量和词汇量迫在眉睫。其次,从多方面调查来看,教师手中的阅读材料往往陈旧过时、跟不上时代的步伐,题材也较为狭窄。而《21世纪英文版中学生报》图文并茂,内容丰富多彩、富有时代气息,贴近学生的实际、贴近生活、贴近社会,符合中学生年龄、心理特征,有利于开拓学生的视野和激发学生的阅读兴趣。因此,我们将它作为课堂教学的辅助阅读材料。
二、英语报刊阅读辅助英语阅读课教学的可行性
(一)新课标的要求
《中学英语课程标准》对英语报刊阅读课提出了要求学生能阅读适合高中生的英语报刊和杂志和能阅读一般的英文报刊和杂志。现行教材中阅读课都是精读课,而泛读是对精读有力的补充。它既能激发学生的阅读兴趣,又能扩大其词汇量,使其了解英语国家的文化背景知识。两者结合起来才能真正提高学生的综合语言运用能力。
(二)高考的阅读测试对学生的要求
高考阅读体裁多样,内容丰富,且具有一定的实用性。它注重考查学生运用英语的实际能力。例如,高考文章里的长难句及一定的生词量、涉及西方文化信息的增多,这客观要求学生的综合能力。
三、利用报刊辅助阅读的模式
(一)课上活用
1.读。我们每周利用课上10分钟进行趣味阅读,同时进行限时阅读,因为它是培养学生阅读技巧和策略的土壤。(1)略读,培养学生的归纳和概括的能力。(2)跳读,使学生快速查找特定信息和细节;(3)细读,培养学生分析长难句和猜词的能力,对文章进行深层理解;(4)精读,要求学生根据背景知识对文章篇章结构有准确的把握。
2.说。设计学生讨论任务,如:上海世博会的召开对中国有何意义?从而提高学生的阅读分析能力和口语表达能力。
3.写。通过报纸材料阅读进行写作也是一个重要的手段。首先可让学生摘抄美句、美段和美文进行背诵,再要求学生仿写、改写和缩写。有时也可对热门话题自由写作。最后以小组形式评选出优质作品展出。
(二)课外巧用
英语教育的任务不仅是传授英语知识和技能,更重要的是让学生掌握学习英语的方法,培养他们的终身学习能力和习惯。课堂10分钟的报刊阅读目的在于起抛砖引玉的作用,引导学生长久地坚持自主阅读报刊的习惯。为了及时了解和督促学生报刊阅读的进展情况,我们从以下几个方面着手。
1.建立阅读档案
建立阅读档案不仅是学生个人的阅读过程记录,也是教师了解学生自主阅读的一个重要途径。如个人阅读调查(What I know about reading):每周阅读后,要求学生写出个人阅读小结,汇报阅读情况,形成对自己报刊阅读过程的形成性评价。
2.报刊内容摘抄
报刊内容摘抄包括:useful words and expressions,good sentences,key words,summary for a certain passage。
以上学生个人报刊阅读档案每周一交由老师过目,及时了解、评价并解答,提出进一步的要求,同时也为小组讨论提供了内容。
3.成立阅读学习小组
建立阅读学习小组促进学生之间互相沟通,净化学生的阅读心理环境,取长补短,形成健康的英语阅读心理机构。7人为一组,选出一组长。教师在阅读之前,提出学习目标和自学目标,每小组一周内采取组内成员轮流提问形式,小组长把各组员的问题总结起来,大家一起思考讨论,最后各小组长汇总不能解决的问题,以便在组际交流时解决这些问题。教师先让比较成熟的小组代表发言,汇报该组的总体情况并提出疑难,其他学生畅所欲言,各抒己见。这样,不仅每一位学生都可以尽情地交换各自的看法,提高自学能力和分析判断等思维能力,而且学生的语言技能提高了,学习潜能和创造力也得到了发挥。学生也从小组合作中培养了团结协作精神。
四、定期评价制度
教师根据报刊内容每两周对学生进行跟踪测试或竞赛,测试竞赛内容包括词汇检测、报刊内容填空、句子结构分析、难句翻译、文章缩写、段落中心归纳、朗读竞赛等,内容丰富多彩,多方面检测学生各种能力,并对结果认真分析,作出恰当的积极的评价,让学生意识到自己在学习过程中取得的进步和受到的激励,建立自信心和培养成就感,从而愈发提高他们的报刊阅读兴趣。我们根据学生每周上交的阅读笔记,小组阅读检查表格、检测的成绩反馈及个人平时的解决问题能力等,对每个学生进行综合评价,评出阅读超人和能手,以此促进学生更加满怀信心地投入到进一步的阅读中。
五、结语
许多教师担心,让学生进行大量的报刊阅读会影响学生的升学和毕业考试。实践证明,报刊阅读是很好的课程资源和课堂教学的延伸。如果在教学中能够增加富有时代气息的阅读材料,指导学生进行广泛阅读,那么,学生的语言综合能力和阅读能力必然会得到提高。通过一年多的报刊阅读探索和实践,我们发现,有90%以上的学生对报刊阅读发生浓厚的兴趣,分析句子能力、阅读速度、欣赏水平大大提高,学生的阅读兴趣和能力已经上升到一个比较高的档次。利用《21世纪英文报》定期阅读,一方面保证了学生的阅读量;另一方面满足了学生阅读各种题材和体裁文章的需要,同时扩大了其知识面,提高了其参与阅读训练的热情。对英语感兴趣的学生比率由原来不足50%上升到90%。我们相信,长此坚持,定将达到甚至超过新课程标准对学生阅读能力和词汇量的要求,迅速适应新高考的步伐。
参考文献:
[1]普通高级中学英语课程标准(实验稿).人民教育出版社,2003.
[2]康美华.巧用英文报刊,优化阅读教学.福州教育出版社,2003.
[3]张志远,董启明.全国中学英语报刊阅读教学论丛.北京大学出版社,2005.
篇9
摘 要 制度经济学为深入研究公司治理问题奠定了理论基础,包括契约理论、交易费用理论和现代产权理论等。本文主要从制度经济学的角度分析了影响公司治理效率的因素和我国现阶段治理效率不高的制度性原因,并尝试从中总结并给出了一些切实可行的改进建议。
关键词 公司治理效率 制度性因素 制度缺陷 交叉持股
现代企业制度核心是建立规范的公司治理机制,“公司治理”也成为近百年的主题词之一。而对于公司治理究竟是什么,现有理论研究并没有给出无可争辩的答案。而且,源于公司治理研究方法及研究对象本身都已经发生翻天覆地的变化,“股东利益至上”与“利益相关者”的争论也未曾停歇,也引发我们的思考:能否寻找新的视角来对公司治理做出更贴切的解释和整合?本文试图从制度经济角度得出一些启发。
一、公司治理机制中的制度性因素
新制度经济学有观点认为:制度是重要的且是可以进行分析的,恰当的制度安排有助于降低复杂系统中的协调成本,限制并可能消除人们之间的冲突。在复杂的社会系统中,大量的社会和经济生活是由内在制度规范的,但适当的外在制度可以更好地实现内在制度的目标,并有助于推动其向与外部政治经济环境更为协调的方向演进。高效公司治理需要的外在制度应该是设计规范、精细,有惩罚性条款,并能被强制执行的正式制度。同时,稳定性的外在制度还必须具有前瞻性,代表未来发展方向。
二、影响我国公司治理效率提高的制度缺陷
我国是在20世纪90年代提出的现代企业制度,一出现就有了“一股就灵”的倾向,各个企业争相改制上市。但低层次的简单“复制”并没有给其公司治理带来预期的深层次变化。按理说,上市公司应是企业中的佼佼者,但显然在沪深交易所挂牌交易的一千多家公司中真正的绩优股却只是凤毛麟角。
一方面,国内的公司治理相关的法律法规明显存在诸多缺陷。“刑不可知,威不可测”,自上而下的外在制度永远是正式的,对违反制度的行为必然有强制性惩罚。我国目前立法还不能将高管人员真正置于民事责任的约束之下,缺乏相关的民事赔偿制度等,仅靠行政处罚既不具威慑力,又不能给受损投资者以补偿,导致中小股东的利益得不到保障;法律法规对上市公司退市机制强制力不够,致使监管中宽容倾向泛滥。
另一方面,更为严重的是,我国市场经济发展历史较短,高效的公司治理所需的内在制度同样存在先天不足。在我国,正是缺乏这种与提高公司治理效率密切相关的文化传统的软环境,主要表现在:首先,我国缺乏强制执行和主动遵循的文化传统。这种文化传统一方面强调执法者必须强制执行已有正式制度,培育市场主体对规则的信任。另一方面强调市场经济主体对法律法规的主动服从和遵循,实现外在制度内在化,提高执行效率。其次,是我国缺乏健康的股权文化。一股独大和公司治理水平低是我国公司普遍并存现象,但是这并不意味着他们之间就有必然和内在的因果关系。再次,密切相关的是我国尚未形成有效的诚信机制。外无强制执行的文化传统,内无健康的股权文化,公司管理者很难有主动服从法律规范的压力和动力,给予了制度的具体执行者更大的相机抉择权力,也使其机会主义行为找到了滋生的土壤。
三、解决现存制度缺陷的一些建议
在今后改进公司治理效率的过程中,必须注意以下几点:
1.要健全股东会、董事会、监事会和经理层,各自职责清晰,依法运作为了让股东会、董事会和经理之间职责清晰。发达国家公司法中基本没有像我国公司法这样分别对股东大会、董事会和经理权力作出列举的。我们必须从这种“分家分权”式的思维中跳出来。
2.全流通和整体上市可以完善公司治理。通过股权分置改革实现股份全流通,在打通通过资本市场改进公司治理的通道上向前迈进了重要一步,但是全流通本身并不能直接改进公司治理。通过整体上市,消灭上市公司与其母公司之间的关联交易,来完善公司治理。保证公平交易的治理机制,关键是法律上确定控股股东、董事和高管的“公平交易义务”。
3.交叉持股可以改进公司治理。多个友好企业之间交叉持股,长期持有,目的是抵御“外敌”,加强管理层对公司的控制。从股东价值导向的现代公司治理角度来看,这种交叉持股恰恰是阻碍公司治理,而不是改进公司治理的。
通过以上分析可以看出外在制度的缺陷与内在制度的先天不足造成了我国公司治理效率的低下。从某种意义上说,只有满足了公司治理成本最小化的前提条件,才有进一步通过市场机制提高公司治理效率的可能,否则,改进公司治理效率无从谈起。
参考文献:
[1]Matthews,R. C. O. The Economics of Institutions and the Source of Economic Growth.Economic Journal.1986.96(December):903-918.
[2]柯武刚,史漫飞.制度经济学:社会秩序与公共政策.北京:商务印书馆.2000.
[3]邵东亚.公司治理的机制与绩效.管理世界.2003(12).
[4]李维安.公司治理教程.上海人民出版社.2002.
[5]刘汉民.所有制、制度环境与公司治理效率.经济研究.2002(06).
篇10
阅读方式的演变
不同的人有不同的阅读方式和习惯,而习惯和方式会因为环境和技术产品的变化而改变,随着印刷业的发展和信息的海量增长,人们的阅读方式在不断地调整,相应的阅读行为和阅读场所也会随之变化,阅读中得到的阅读体验又会在一定程度上影响到阅读方式。当前的阅读方式呈现多元化趋势,本文粗略将阅读方式分为传统阅读、屏幕阅读和智能化阅读,这三种方式是并存的。
1.传统阅读
在电子书出现之前的阅读方式,都是传统的纸质书籍阅读。在书籍缺乏的时代,信息也传递得慢,常用的方式是精读。传统阅读一般理解为功利性阅读、深阅读,有助于开发沉思冥想式的思维。纸质阅读被很多人称之为阅读审美享受,这种体验远超过其他阅读方式。传统阅读方式的主要特点是纸质媒体为必要条件。
2.屏幕阅读
随着数字出版的发展,人们的阅读实现逐渐从纸张转到了屏幕,数字化阅读大幅提升了人们的阅读量。数字书籍容量大、易于携带、传播快,给人们的阅读带来了方便。但数字阅读有它的不利之处,依赖于电子书的格式和排版,受制于阅读终端(屏幕)的选择,同时人们也普遍认为数字化阅读为浅阅读,但这种观念也在不断变化。从传统阅读到数字阅读最显著的特点是介质的变化:从纸质到屏幕。
3.智能阅读
能随时随地满足阅读的愿望是人们对阅读的梦想,这种趋势就是智能阅读。在移动互联网时代,时间间隔划分越来越小,微阅读、泛阅读、移动阅读等碎片化阅读要求智能化阅读。这种方式的最大特点是不受限:时间、地点、介质都不受限,满足人们的阅读享受,达到互动。
阅读终端发展现状
电子书信息量大、更新快、交互性强,但它的特点是依附各种电子平台,体现在不同的阅读终端上。当前的阅读终端种类繁多,大体上可以归为以下四类:
1.计算机——iPad
电子书的传播形式很多,但最初是借助于互联网传播的,而计算机是数字阅读最早的终端设备。随着技术的提高和材料科学的发展,计算机越来越便携,功能性的电脑逐渐出现,平板电脑特别是iPad的出现是阅读体验的一场革命,支持几乎所有的数字出版物格式,支持专业的阅读软件,但价格较为昂贵。
2.电子阅读器——Kindle
Kindle的出现从根本上讲是一种数字内容的出版,它有自己独特的电子书标准azw,有自己的电子书渠道,当然它支持兼容PC的阅读软件和iPhone的手机阅读软件。Kindle采用E-ink技术,不像高亮屏幕那样伤害视力,有数字阅读的便捷和大容量,又有传统阅读的质感享受,纯粹用来阅读是不错的选择。但E-ink的发展还有待观察。
3.3G手机
手机阅读将电子书的阅读体验带到了移动的环境中。这种方式能够更为精准地满足人们的个性化阅读需求,获取各类信息也更为便捷。手机是当今普及最高的终端设备,作为阅读终端也最为便携,支持的电子书格式也越来越丰富。但手机存在续航能力不足和屏幕尺寸偏少的问题。
4.智能电视
GoogleTV和AppleTV的推出,使得电视机成为实际意义上的访问终端和阅读终端。语音、手势遥控进行的人机交互体验是智能电视最显著的特点,三网融合的发展进一步推进了智能电视的应用,智能云电视的出现更是提供了丰富的阅读体验。智能电视能从网络、AV设备、PC等多种渠道获得节目内容,通过简单易用的整合式操作界面,避免了其他阅读终端操作上的复杂性。
其实,以上的分类界限如今已越来越模糊,手机在向平板电脑方向发展,平板电脑也能移动上网,智能电视拥有开放的平台,那么在未来,最有可能的是:无论终端的形式是什么,搭载的系统是什么,运营的内容是什么,服务商是谁,都不再重要,重要的是它都能满足人们的需要——呈现的内容符合预期和随时随地上网以及随时随地阅读。
阅读终端发展趋势
媒介融合的时代,数字出版的浪潮汹涌而至,作为数字内容产业链的重要一环——阅读终端,迎合了时代的潮流,它的发展走向会在很大程度上影响到数字出版的趋势。
而未来的阅读终端无论怎样发展,它都应该具有以下的特征:
新媒体:符合新媒体发展的特点,满足层出不穷的新格式的要求。
个性化:人们的个性化需求越来越突出,对阅读终端的需求也必定是个性化的。
标准化:阅读终端需要移动互联,这就需要标准,比如硬件接口、阅读软件API。
云屏幕:目前很多厂家提供了云服务,人们所有的数据可以集中在云端,可以分发到不同的终端,不必担心终端的升级更换带来的数据内容的遗失。
主题阅读:在信息泛滥的时代唯一能抓的是主题,阅读终端要支持基于主题的检索、归类和划分。
安全性:个性化的阅读终端不仅仅是用来阅读的内容平台,还可能是支付、通信等终端,包含很多的个人私密信息,它本身的安全性和移动接入的安全如何保障是一个老问题,也是新问题。
此外,高聚的功能、便携性、续航能力、开放性都应该是新的阅读终端不可或缺的特点。
阅读终端不仅仅是一种产品,也是一个窗口、一种渠道、一种内容平台,通过它满足人们随时随地的个性化的阅读需求,这是发展的趋势。各厂商的盈利模式不是单纯的产品,而是硬件+内容,比如Amazon的Kindle就是以内容销售为主要利润来源。运营商的营销策略也是广做内容,像苹果的AppStore,数据驱动的产品在不断地吞噬人们的时间,所以人们需求的是快速精准的主题搜索和定位,内容驱动才是王道。
结 语
无论阅读终端怎么发展,总会契合人们的阅读方式,反过来,人们的阅读方式的变化也总会影响阅读终端的改变。
技术和应用日新月异,在三网融合、物联网、云计算等新模式下,阅读终端充当着非常重要的角色,反过来,阅读终端也会因为新模式的应用发生很大的变化。
今天,一个芯片能装下整个图书馆,人们的生活业已被手机、电视、电脑、阅读器等各种屏幕所占据。当时间被碎片化后,选择读什么、怎么读是每个人面临的新问题。无论阅读终端如何变化,人们对阅读本身和阅读享受的需求不会变化,在信息海洋里,当浮华过滤之后,沉淀下的优质内容依然是人们关注的焦点所在。
参考文献:
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