营销的含义范文

时间:2023-11-16 17:52:39

导语:如何才能写好一篇营销的含义,这就需要搜集整理更多的资料和文献,欢迎阅读由公务员之家整理的十篇范文,供你借鉴。

营销的含义

篇1

第一层意思就是直接比喻人,战士、将军,包括领军作战的人都是兵。第二个就是兵器。更重要的是第三个,就是兵法,古代战争中,包括现代战争中,你运用的战略、战术,用兵的思路、方法。

把以上几层意思用到我们日常的管理中,首先兵,营销团队就是兵。其次,产品就是我们的兵器。你用不同的产品型号、类别,以及产品质量等等,都是跟产品有关的,这都算是兵器。然后是我们的营销理念,比如怎么做北京市场、做广州市场,或者面向全国做业务、做出口业务等等,实际上就是一种兵法。

如果你能把这三个方面有机地用好,那你的营销就做好了。如果你光考虑这里面的任何一点,可能就有问题了。

临危受命

我刚开始在长城葡萄酒做营销属于临危授命,在此之前我一直做生产技术。当时做管理部门经理的时候,陪总经理去英国考察,去的时候刚好房间紧张,我就跟他住一个房间,看他一晚上都不睡觉,老是抽烟。我说碰见什么事儿了,他说现在市场不好。

当时是九八、九九年,在九八年以前,干白很畅销,长城为了迎合市场需求,扩大干白的产量,从一千吨扩大到两万吨。产量扩这么大,就建工厂,搞原料基地。突然九六年的时候,市场需要干红,干红原料没有,干白又卖不出去,所以企业转型的过程中很被动,第一年市场上欠我们的应收账款达到两个多亿。因为当时国营企业向民营企业转,国企就是先发货,卖了以后再打款。突然一夜之间转制了,国营的糖酒公司都垮了,破产了,货款返不了。

更关键的是,长城干白滞销了,拿出去也卖不了,货款也回不来。我们的原料又源源不断地生产出来,每一年葡萄要收获,收上来要做成酒,储存起来,你这边卖不了,那边还得收,就很被动。市场上大概欠我们两个多亿,我们压的原酒是五个多亿。一般像这种接近七八个亿、十个亿资金拖欠的时候,企业就面临着破产。

我就跟总经理说,既然市场遇到这样的问题,你就把别的事放一放,抓抓市场,抓抓营销,你抓了,力度会更大一些。他就讲这个事不容易做,很难做。我们老板是在五楼办公,营销部门在一楼,我们管理部门在三楼,后来我说:要不然你从五楼搬到一楼办公,离营销部门近一点。当然这是开玩笑,随便聊天。

但是我们21日从英国回来,22日开经理办公会就发了一个文,任命我去营销部做经理。第一天回来,第二天开会宣布了,我觉得很突然,我就开玩笑说我是做技术、做管理的,对市场营销什么都不懂,做不了。总经理就说,你不想让我从五楼搬到一楼办公嘛,我觉得你从三楼到一楼更近一点,更方便一些。这种情况下,我就去做了。

到了营销部以后,面临着很多问题:市场上钱收不回来,只能投钱,很困难。这个时候,产品结构需要调整,营销队伍需要整顿,副厂也需要大幅度调整。

调整兵士

首先,是兵。在营销队伍里面,根据各个人的特点、能力、管的区域,还有他做营销的经验,根据他的实际情况调整。因为我们有些经理,他在一个地区当地区经理可能做了十年了,会有某种东西,比如他和地方的经销商打成一片,很熟。从正面来说关系好,好做工作。但是负面的,他们会勾结在一块,他们两个勾结起来瞒工厂或者瞒总公司,很多东西是他的意思,但是他让经销商找你,变成经销商的意思。我们经常说的一句俗话叫“客大欺主”。经销商做大了以后,他要挟你,你不给我市场费用,我不卖你的产品,我卖王朝、张裕去了。或者,你不给我投放广告的话,我卖别的。就欺负你。

那你这个时候就得从根上解决了,就得给他调整,换地方。或者你不换地方也行,我们直接跟经销商对话。过去,我们都是靠下边这些所谓的封疆大吏—分公司经理、片区经理上传下达。跟经销商直接对话,这样就使他们实际上和经销商之间的利益关系被割断了。

我采取的第一招是,凡销售一千万以上的客户,我直接接待、直接对话,经销商来直接跟我谈,你们下面做好服务工作,你们去签协议、谈合同、谈规划,定这个东西。一千万以上的客户跟我直接对话,中间这一层他们勾结的链条就被切断了。

或者,你自己配合得不好,四川的就给你换到湖北去,湖北的给你换到东北去。因为片区的销量不一样,你动一下他的位置,对他的个人利益、收入都有影响。好的区域,像广东一年卖四个亿,甘肃一年才卖四千万都不到,这个区别还是很大的。这样的话,广东的不愿意动,那他就得把工作做得更好。过去跟经销商勾结的,他就得收敛收敛。

跟经销商勾结在一起的,如果要把他从原来的地方调走,一般会引起反弹,那就需要策略了。首先,在那个地方的局面你能够掌控了,你才可以调动他。你不能盲目,上来直接就调动,那你不是给自己找麻烦吗?我是1999年8月3日做的销售经理,我从1999年8月3日到2000年8月2日,一年时间,把全国的销售区域,除了台湾没有去以外,全走了一遍。一个月坐飞机最多坐了27次,一个月坐27次飞机,几乎每天转一个地方。把这些都了解以后,情况你都掌握了以后,你才能考虑调整。

兵器与兵法

其次,兵器,也就是产品。

因为长城过去的产品比较单一,后来我就开发了好多产品,不同规格、不同地区、不同经销商的,这就是我所说的兵器调整。

然后就是战术,根据当时的情况,比方说某某欠我们两个亿的应收账款,怎么收回来。我用一年时间基本上把情况了解完了以后,凡是欠我们款五百万以上的经销商,我就从欠款最多也是规模最大的经销商开始谈,当时最多的欠我们三千多万,最少的欠我们几十万、一百万,五百万以下的我就不考虑了,挑重点一个一个击破。

我先把广东一个欠我们三千多万的经销商找来谈,长城干白转长城干红的时候,我们出厂价是16块8,红瓶的老干红。我说你来,我给你开发一款产品,不是我们现在卖的产品,你自己设计一个标,根据你的特点,然后我拿出厂价给你13块8。这就比市场价低三块钱,这样你就有利润空间。他挺感兴趣,因为批发酒的,一瓶一块钱的利润空间,利润很可观,他一年卖几百万瓶酒,就是几百万的利润。他一听这个很有诱惑力,回去就设计了一个标。

他把标设计好了,叫长城金刚干红葡萄酒。其实他设计什么都不重要,我重要的是有下一步的打算,因为你有利润空间,对你有诱惑,那你设计完了以后,我通过你就可以做,条件是你不欠我三千万吗,先给我回过来三百万,把原来欠的款回过来10%,我也不让你全回。先回过来,然后开始发第一批货。第一批货发完了以后,第二批还发货,每发一批货,就还一百万。因为每次最多发一百多万的货,等于你给我打过来两百万,我给你发一百万的货。你如果打五十万,我就给你发二十五万的货。打一百万,我给你发五十万的货。每一次打货款的时候,我一半发货一半收账。

因为有利润空间,他就愿意做,就试了一下。当然我各方面都要支持他,我一定能做主,至少能管理他。同时,榜样的力量是无穷的,要把他树立成一个典型,因为下一步还要带动别人。

这个产品生产出来以后,第一批就发了三千箱货,我13块8发给他以后,他卖了20块8,一瓶就有七块钱的差价。同时它跟别的产品又不冲突,发给他货以后,五天就卖完了。于是这个经销商积极性就很高,说要做个计划,要十万箱。

我说十万箱生产不出来,就一万箱一万箱地做吧。然后你想,从10月份国庆节上市,到春节的时候,他就卖出去了六万箱。一箱是六瓶,就是36万瓶,七块钱的利润空间,他就看到希望了,第二年在尝酒会上,他自己弄了一个摊位,2000年一年,他就把欠我们的三千万都还了。因为他发货量大,2000年一年他卖了六千万,六千万的货,就把欠我们的款都扣光了。

篇2

穿梭其间,仿佛能听到时光流过的声音,抬头便能清晰地望见远处徐志摩当年坠机而亡的山峦。这是由著名策展人陈小波策划的《艺术家·老百姓——新华典藏影像展》的现场,也是第四届中国(济南)国际摄影双年展最为重要的展览区域之一。在这些来自新华社中国照片档案馆的珍贵影像中,老艺术家、作家们褪去了“光环”,就如策展人陈小波所说:“与人民打成一片,离百姓如此之近,离土地如此之近,这种状态在今天是不能想象的”。

第四届中国(济南)国际摄影双年展暨齐鲁国际摄影周于10月12日在山东工艺美术学院开幕。此次双年展汇集了“国际摄影大师原作展”、“学术(邀请)展”和“主题展”3大类共82项展览。活动以“回顾与展望——从影像本体出发”为主题,将作品展示、学术交流和研究成果融合成“三位一体”的全新展览模式,为人们带来了一场真正的视觉与学术并重的盛宴。

此次活动的所有展览地点都在山东工艺美术学院,主办方根据展览内容将作品安排在不同的展示区域,既有放置在户外,数米长的巨幅图片,也有藏于室内的方寸影像。参观者无需像参加国内一些大型摄影节那样跑遍“全城”奔波看展,只需轻松移步,各种影像便跃然眼前。

展览

大部分重要展览都集中在山东工艺美术学院的图书馆内举行,其中最具人气的,无疑是詹姆斯·纳切威、约瑟夫·寇德卡和杰瑞·尤斯曼三位大师的作品展。

站在纳切威的作品前会有一种被“吸住”的感觉,仔细端详,那些不着痕迹地对各种摄影语言的自如运用让人不得不赞叹;而那些扑面而来的残酷与悲伤不会将人拒之千里之外,却使整个空间充盈着一种深沉的爱。

此次寇德卡为我们带来的是十余幅动物题材的作品,是他送给女儿的生日礼物。那些小猫小狗在寇德卡的镜头中,或多或少都蕴含着点儿“吉普赛人”的苍凉意味——摄影大师与普通摄影者的区别可能就在于,前者无论拍什么都能被一眼分辨出出自谁手,而后者则可能像是会七十二变的孙悟空一样,摄影语言纷杂而缺乏统一性。

步入尤斯曼的作品展厅,仿佛进入了一个梦幻世界。极鲜明的个人艺术理念、超群的暗房制作工艺背后,是其回归摄影本体的不懈追求。

学术文本

与以往不同的是,本届双年展强调展示与学术研究及理论探索并重,于是便有了《显影——纳切威、寇德卡、尤斯曼与中国40位摄影师》、《底片——探寻熟悉的陌生人》、《非像说》这三本重要著作,其中汇集大量的学术文本以供今后研究之用。

《显影》汇集了三位摄影大师的参展作品,同时将影展中与学术研究有关的国内摄影家作品,结合学术研究成果编排在一起。其中,摄影评论家海杰的《是做“超级产妇”,还是要自我的欢愉?》一文,一方面对“纪实摄影”在中国的被“误读”以及海量实践进行了深刻反思;同时也对摄影本体的觉醒与抗争热情地予以召唤:“让摄影回归本体属性,而非作为拍摄者和被摄体之外的第三方工具”,读来酣畅淋漓。

摄影家潘科所著的《底片——探寻熟悉的陌生人》是我国第一本系统研究摄影家个案的专著,以对比研究胡武功、侯登科这两位“陕西群体”重要成员的底片以及文论、日记等文本的方式,还原了两位摄影家一些作品的诞生过程,试图揭示他们不为人所熟知的精神世界,同时也讲述了与之相关的当代中国摄影史上的一些重要事件,是不可多得的摄影师个案研究成果。

由著名摄影家、策展人王征主编的《非像说》可以说是其主编的《像说》的延续,是一本集中讨论影像本体语言的访谈体著作。在本书中,王征与摄影界的多位重要人物一起对今天中国摄影界所面临的诸多问题做出了回应。其中最重要的成果之一是理论家藏策在《不可不说的言说——再访藏策》中集中阐述的“元影像理论”,他提出了影像回归心灵与东方文化以及发展中国自己的摄影流派的艺术主张。同时,李树峰、李杰、陈小波等摄影界专家也在访谈中就摄影本体语言等相关问题做出了自己的阐释。此外,王征还采访了李百军、吴平关、孙越峰三位具有代表性的摄影家,作为对历史的回顾与梳理,为中国摄影今后的发展提供了三个不同时期、不同地域、经验互有差异的重要影像语言样本。

活动

与摄影展览并行的是十余场学术论坛、讲座等,其中,詹姆斯·纳切威与中国摄影师对话以及纳切威的专场讲座是本届双年展的亮点之一,吸引了众多“老纳”的“粉丝”前来围观。不少人在活动后感慨道:“终于见到活着的大师了!”

篇3

关键词:天津高校;校训翻译;原则和方法

校训凝聚了学校的治学理念和办校精神,起到了凝聚人心和激励广大师生的作用。近年来,高校认识到了对外交流的重要性,天津各大高校也不例外,校训对于学校展开对外交流和合作发挥着至关重要的作用。本文根据天津各大高校的校训翻译实例,对校训的语言结构进行了总结,得出了英译校训的翻译原则。

一、天津高校校训语言特点

1.天津高校校训多采用四字格形式,对仗工整,音韵优美,短小精炼,言简意赅。如天津医科大学校训“德高医粹,知行合一”和天津师范大学“勤奋严谨,自树树人”均是四字格形式。

2.西方校训多是名词性短语或句子,不同于西方高校校训,天津各大校训多采用动词,趋于动态的表达,文体更加生动活泼。如天津理工大学校训“重德重能,求实求新”和天津中医药大学校训“进德修业,继承创新”均是动词短语。

3.从文化内涵来看,校训多来自中国传统文化,来自于各大经典作品或警示名言,内涵丰富。南开大学的校训是“允公允能,日新月异”。“允公允能”的句式源自《诗经・鲁颂・泮水》中的“允文允武”。“日新月异”则来自于《易经》。南开校训的内涵即鼓励所有受教育者都要有大公之心,在学习和工作中贡献自己的力量,除此之外,还要不断进取,更新自己的技能,永攀高峰。

二、天津高校校训翻译的实例分析

(一)天津高校校训英译最常见的结构

1.名词或名词化结构。如天津城建大学校训“重德重能,善学善建”翻译成“Morality and Capability,Learning and Creating”,中国民航大学校训“笃学精博,严谨创新”翻译成“Diligence,Precision,Discipline and Innovation”。

2.动宾结构。如天津大学校训“实事求是”翻译成“Seek Truth From Facts”。

3.介词短语+句子。如天津科技大学校训“尚德尚学尚行,爱国爱校爱人”翻译成“For Virtue,Knowledge and Practice We Feel Reverence. To our Nation,Campus and Fellowman We Find Easy Attachment”。

(二)英译校训时应遵循的原则

清末新兴启蒙思想家严复在《天演论》中的“译例言”讲到:“译事三难”:信、达、雅。目前,“信、达、雅”对于文学翻译的影响依然很大,英译校训时,“信、达、雅”依然存在其指б庖濉

1.信:指的是意义不悖于原文,译文要准确。英译校训前,需要对校训的特点进行研究,透彻理解校训的深刻的文化内涵,准确传达出校训的含义。

2.达:指的是不要拘泥于原文的形式,译文要通达顺畅。因为中英文之间存在着巨大差异,汉语注重意合,英文注重形合,故英译校训时,要遵循英语的表达习惯。国外大学校训的措辞和形式相对简单,易于理解。除了形式差异之外,校训翻译还要注意中外之间的文化差异,避免使用晦涩难懂的词汇,实现对外宣传的作用。

3.雅:指的是译文选择的词汇要得体,追求文章本身的古雅,简明清晰。各大高校校训多引经据典,具有音韵美,翻译时需要选择能够达到同一效果的词汇。翻译过程中要删繁就简,简洁明了。

三、结语

校训作为一张有力的名片,好的校训有利于实现其对外宣传和推广,吸引国内国外的优秀师资。校训是大学的文化积淀,体现的是大学的时代特点和办学宗旨,校训翻译对于学校精神的传承至关重要。通过对天津各大高校校训进行实例之后,提出了校训具有类似的语言特点,对中国其他高校校训英译提供了参考,同时得出了严复的“信达雅”对于校训英译依然存在指导意义。

参考文献:

[1]范武邱,范头姣.中国大学校训翻译:问题与基本对策.上海翻译,2008.

[2]岳中生.论大学校训的翻译. 河南科技大学学报(社会科学报),2009.

篇4

[关键词]汉译英 词语选择 语境 词语搭配

[中图分类号]H315.9[文献标识码]A[文章编号]1009-5349(2011)05-0048-01

我们在翻译时,遇到一个具体的词或短语的翻译,首先要解决一个选词的问题,正确选词是保证译文质量的前提。选词是否恰当,取决于译者对原文的理解能力和对英语的掌握水平。如果译文是给一般读者看的,就应通俗易懂,句子结构简单一点,尽量少用生僻词汇。莎士比亚曾说过:“简洁是语言的灵魂。”因此汉英译文应力求词汇更简洁,句型更简化。

一、根据上下文语境选择词汇

确切理解原文词义是正确选词的前提,首先就要求对原文的上下文进行推敲,根据上下文正确理解原文的词义。我国英语初学者往往易犯逐词死译的毛病,常用的词汇如“抓”“水平”“情况”等,不看上下文的语境如何,一概照搬词典译为“grasp”“level”“condition”。翻译时要根据汉英词汇中的广义、狭义、具体意义和抽象意义的不同来灵活应用。如汉语“抓”字狭义指用手抓,例如:“他的手被猫抓了”(His hand was scratched by a cat);有时可作抽象的意义解,如“抓瞎”(find oneself at a loss);“做文章要抓住重点”(pay close attention to the focal point)。将“文化水平”译成“cultural level”,外宾照样看不懂,可译为“educational background(or level)”。再如“情况”一词,可以根据上下文分别译成“condition”“circumstances”“things”“situation”“state of affairs”等等。例如:“我们是否出席会议,那要看情况而定。”可译为:“Whether we attend the meeting or not,that depends.”“如今情况大不相同了,中国的农民也盖起了楼房和别墅。”可译为:“Things are so different now that Chinese farmers have also built up their own apartments and villas.”“在这种情况下,我们别无它法,只好如此。”就应译成:“Under such circumstances,we have no other alternatives(or choices)to do so.”

由此可见,在汉译英的过程中,往往需要在译文中用不同的词来表达同一个汉语词汇,这就叫“同词异译”,它是解决汉英两种语言在词汇方面矛盾的重要手段之一。

二、注意选词的广义、狭义、褒贬、强弱和政治分寸

1.农业是国民经济的基础。(广义)

Agriculture is the foundation of our national economy.

2.这些年来,我国的农业、林业、畜牧业和渔业都得到相应的发展。(狭义)

Over the years,corresponding developments have been made in our farming,forestry,animal husbandry and fishery.

3.这位美国作家的汉语水平很高。

This American writer has a pretty good command of Chinese.(不宜译成汉语式英语:He has a high level of Chinese.or His Chinese level is very high.)

4.提高各级新干部的领导水平很有必要。

It is quite necessary to improve the art of leadership of our new government officials at all levels.(“领导水平”在此不能译成“the level of leadership”)

5.他那八十高龄的母亲已于上月去世。(褒义)

His mother passed away at an advanced age of eighty last month.

6.臭名昭著的麦卡锡终于一命乌呼!(贬义)

Notorious McCarthy did kick the bucket at long last!

三、注意词语的搭配

汉语和英语各有其特殊的结构和表达方式,因此它们在词语的搭配上就有所不同,翻译时必须注意两者的区别,不能将汉语词汇的搭配习惯硬套到英语译文中来。例如:

1.上场to appear on the stage/上飞机to aboard a plane/上油to add lubricant oil/上公共汽车to get on a bus

2.青山绿水green hills and blue streams/青云直上rise in the world/浓咖啡strong coffee/浓墨淡写paint with thick ink and a light touch

以上例句1,汉语都是一个“上”字,译成英语时就要选用各种不同的动词才符合英语的习惯表达法;同样,同是一个“青”和“浓”字,与不同的词语搭配,英译时就需要选用不同的词汇来表达,才能达意传神。

【参考文献】

篇5

1.认准字形

小学生容易接受新事物,但积累起来有时混淆。如“n”和“u”和“b”和“d”等,应给予他们以形的理解方式去记忆,由于他们的字形相近,会带给孩子们带来麻烦。

2.读准翘舌音

翘舌音就是发音时舌头翘起。教师在教zh、ch、sh、r时,一定要让学生认真观察发音部位和方法;翘起舌尖,抵住硬腭的前部,就是上牙床后部位然后稍放松,让气流从缝中挤出来,由于受区域的影响,很多方言把zh、ch、sh读成z、c、s,甚至有的地区的方言根本不存在zh、ch、sh的音,学生找不到正确发音部位,读准拼音。

3.及时发现问题,解决问题

小学生年龄尚小,常常其所接触的家庭环境或社会环境的影响而养成不规范的发音习惯。如有些家长把上学的学(xué)读成“xiào”,“大约”的“约”(yuē)读成(yāo);把鲜血的“血”(xuě)读成“(xiě)”而小学生在幼年时期就受到错误的教育,在其脑海中的记忆会很深,因此,我们应及时地发现其错误,并及时地纠正。

4.读准n、l两个字母

有些地区的人常把“奶”读成“lǎilǎi”把蓝天读成“nán”天发,发音时,舌尖低住口牙床,让气流从鼻腔透出,。声音又轻又短,l的发音与n的大至相同,但气流不从鼻腔中透出,掌握了发音方法,就可区分这两个声母读音了。

5.读准四声

为了读好“四声”先教给学生声调规律:一声平,二声扬,三声拐弯,四声降,上声的特点是音高最低,音长最长。常出现的毛病是读的音较短,降得不够低,不够快。别外,训练要循序渐进,首先按阴、阳、上、去的顺序,借助手势做辅助,让学生掌握声调高低升级的变化过程,读准四声的准确调值。其次,打乱顺序读准调值。最后,在整个拼音教学过程中加以练习,都应该有一个复习巩固和不断辩正的过程。

6.读节拼音要规范

说到拼读方法,大家都知道两种拼法是:“前者轻短,后音重,两音相连猛一碰。”三拼法是:“声轻介快韵母响,三拼连续很顺当。”教学中教师可以先把章节分解,体味出是由哪些音组成的,这样,会避免在教学中出现错误。

篇6

【关键词】汉语新闻;翻译;效度;策略

当今世界不断加快的全球化进程促进了日益频繁的国际交流与合作,信息传播是国际交流与合作的重要桥梁。新闻以其特有的优势有效地传播世界各国的最新信息,我国的新闻在传播国内政治经济社会发展现状、传播改革发展巨大成效、吸引更多的人旅游投资等方面发挥着重要的中介作用。汉语新闻的英译在信息传播过程中显得尤其重要,而汉语新闻英译的效度直接反映着新闻的质量及其价值。统计资料显示,在1979~2009年间发表的新闻翻译研究的论文中,有关新闻文体特点和翻译方法的文章比例高达61%,[1]但在这些研究中探讨新闻翻译效度的主题为数不多,鉴于此,本文将主要对汉语新闻英译的效度及提高英译效度的策略进行探讨。

翻译效度的内涵

效度即有效性,是指所测量到的结果反映想要考察内容的程度,测量结果与要考察的内容越吻合,则效度越高;反之,则效度越低。效度的概念除了常用于自然科学研究及统计学中,还被广泛应用于语言测试系统,而翻译效度是一个相对比较新的概念。Andrew Chesterman在他的《The memes of the Translation》一书中最早提出翻译效度的概念,他认为翻译效度就是“翻译的成功”,[2]翻译的成功取决于相关因素之间的趋同度。在翻译领域,趋同度可以被理解为两种不同语言文本所产生的效应的相似程度。赵彦春在On the Explanatory Power of the Relevance Theory to Translation一文中研究了翻译效度,他用公式TrV=Convergence/divergence来阐释翻译效度:趋同度高,则趋异度小,翻译的效度就高;反之,趋同度低,则趋异度大,翻译的效度就低。[3]

影响汉语新闻英译效度的因素

汉语新闻英译的效度也遵循翻译效度的基本规律。如果汉语新闻的英译文本对于英语读者产生的效应与汉语文本对中国读者所产生的效应在程度上越接近,趋同度越高,就说明译文越成功,即翻译效度越高。正如Gutt所言,成功的译文就是译者确保译文中交际者的意图和接受者的期待这一对关系与原文中的这一对关系一致。[4]由此可以看出,影响汉语新闻英译效度的主要因素是译者、受众和环境,也就是新闻的认知语境,译者的翻译策略和受众的接受水平。

新闻的认知语境。认知语境是指心理上可以显映的事实或假设的集合,通常由逻辑信息、百科信息与词汇信息构成。[5]认知语境具有动态变化的特征,生活中个体所处的外部环境不同,人们的认知能力也存在差异。因此,个体所呈现出来的“心理表征”也存在一定的差异,由此导致的认知环境就有所不同。汉语新闻英译的效度取决于译者对英语受众认知语境的期待和估量,认知语境的变化在很大程度上影响着汉语新闻英译的效度,译者要特别关注目标受众认知语境的动态变化。

译者的翻译策略。翻译策略是指译者通过正确分析翻译任务,协调好翻译发起者、原语文本、原语作者、译文读者之间的关系并采取适当的方式灵活处理,从而成功地传递文本信息和实现翻译目的的方法。从翻译的功能来看,凡是以最佳方式、最高时效、最高效果出于有助社会交流和多元文化发展考量而进行及完成的翻译行为都是合理的。[6]相比文学翻译,新闻翻译在文体结构、风格、语言等方面都具有自身的特点和一定的局限性。因此,在汉语新闻英译过程中选择什么样的翻译策略,对其效度影响很大。

受众的接受水平。翻译活动是在原语言、译者和目的语之间进行的跨文化交际活动。汉语新闻英译最直接的接受者和检验者是英语受众。如果受众的知识结构完整、阅历丰富、思维活跃、语言水平高,那么对于新闻英译接受的程度就高,反之,接受程度就低。因此,汉语新闻英译的效度与受众的接受水平紧密相关。由于中西方在语言文化、风俗习惯、思维模式、翻译传播导向等方面存在较大差异,这些因素直接或间接地影响到了汉语新闻英译的效度水平。

提高汉语新闻英译效度的策略

翻译的效度取决于翻译过程中所涉及的诸多因素间的趋同度。一般情况下,译者应使译文尽可能地向原语趋同,这是体现汉语新闻英译效度的关键。为更好地向世界各国传播中国的新闻信息,提高汉语新闻英译效度,译者有必要采取相应的方法和策略。

释义。释义是提高汉语新闻翻译效度的行之有效的方法,它要求译者根据原语文本给出相关的释义和解释。使用释义法能够有效解决机械翻译所导致的忽视社会文化差异问题。对于释义法,美联社对其记者提出了五项原则,这些原则同样可以用来指导翻译过程:(1)解释读者不熟悉的相关地理名称;(2)解释日常用语中不常使用的词语和术语;(3)回答一般读者都会提出的问题,但是不用太多;(4)不要使释义晦涩难懂;(5)不要使用太多需要解释的词语。[7]根据这五项原则,释义常被用于特殊的汉语表达和名称,本文主要从历史事件、行话、专有名词、传统节日、风俗习惯等方面进行阐释。

篇7

关键词:模糊语言; 商务英语信函; 积极作用; 消极作用

一、 Introduction

This paper aims to study vague language in business English letters, and discuss when people use vague language and why people use vague language on actual contexts. At the same time, we also learn the active functions and negative functions which are the vague language in business English letters causing. Based on the two functions, we discuss how to use vague language and avoid negative function in the business English letters.

(一) Introduction to the study

L.A.Zadeh, a professor of California University and an expert of Cybernetics, first put forward his concept and theory of fuzzy sets in 1965. From then on, there are many studies on vague language. Linguists reach a common sense that vague language plays a significant role in human communication. English linguist Channel (2000:194) claims that "whether one can properly use vague language shows one's language performance, because vague language is an inseparable part of language communication." A Chinese linguist Wu Tieping first brought vagueness into China and then his first Investigation of Fuzzy Linguistics came to the public in 1999 which remarks the beginning of researching vague language in China. There are a large amount of researches on vague language from semantic and pragmatic angles soon after, such as Practical Fuzzy Linguistics by Li Qian Jv in 1996, On Fuzzy Semantics by Zhang Qiao in 1998.

Although the existing or spreading of vague language everywhere, litter study on it in business English letters has been found because of the disputes or even lawsuits causing by vague language. As we know, the principles of business writing require the usage of its language precise, exact and clear, but vague language is always common used in business writing.

So, we should strive to study clearly the vague language in business English letters, especially in specific contexts about its effect of appropriateness and wide applicability.

(二) Data Collection and Research Method

The data of this paper are business English letters which are expected to point out when and why people use vague language and its active functions and negative functions in business English letters. These materials are collected mainly form books and articles on business English letters and business communication. The author also has collected some examples from other authors relevant to the current study. In fact, these examples in this paper are in the form of sentences form the letters. There are 20 samples of business English letters being not attached to the study due to the limited length of the paper.

A qualitative method is used in this paper to study the deliberate use of vague language by using business English letters as examples. Based on the theoretical prerequisites, the study explores the essential reasons of when and why people use vague language in business English letters.

二、 Literature Review

There is not a common sense what is vague language from the beginning to today. The originator of the notion of vagueness in language, a famous philosopher Pierce, showed his interest in natural language in1902.The philosophical study on vagueness of natural language brought about this phenomenon in the linguistic field. From then on, fuzziness, ambiguity, generality and vagueness have been made to define the confusing terms by linguists. This chapter plays much attention to the definition of vague language and the relationship of some confusing terms.

(一) A Definition of Vague language

Although a great number of researches on vague language have been carried out, a definition can not come to consensus in the linguistic field. There are two reasons to explain the difficulty, one is the vague language is complex area of study the other is the large number of different conceptions of vague language. Therefore, it is urgent to delimitate the present study towards the definition of vague language according to the definition by Wu Tieping and Channel are as follows:

Some words or some sentences are vague, they are not independent but in the context.

Vague language is vague probe to the vagueness of itself and the vagueness of acknowledge, it aims to language communication and chose loosely.

The latter study of vague language in business English letters will be firmly fellow the above definition.

(二) Comparison of Some Confusing Terms

In order to distinct the four terms among vagueness, fuzziness, generality and ambiguity. It is so significant that much effort has been done on this matter in linguistics. This paper will continue this project for sake of better understanding of the research.

1.Vague Language vs. Fuzziness

The two words are used exchangeable by some researches. Linguists like Black Russell, Fillmore, Ullmann, Deese, Channel and etc. all substitute vagueness for fuzziness. Actually, the research about this has not been worked out. Kempson(1979),a English linguist classifies vagueness into the following four types(qtd. in Zhang Qiao 17-18).

(1) Referential vagueness, where the meaning of a lexical item is in principle clear enough, but it may be hard to decide whether or not the item be applied to certain objects;

(2) Indeterminacy of meaning, where the meaning of an item itself seems indeterminate;

(3) Lack of specification in the meaning of items, where the meaning is clear but is only generally specified;

(4) Disjunction in the specification of an item's meaning, where the meaning involves an either-or statement with different interpretation possibilities.

As the above-mentioned classification, we will discuss three types because the last type is beyond our study in this paper. The first is lack of clear boundaries. For instance, we have no idea to recognize the referential boundary like “land” or “floor” ;“the ground” or “the earth”. The second is that the borderline of a word is uncertain. For example, how beautiful is “beautiful”? How small is “small”? These borderlines are not clear. The third is the uncertainty in a phrase or proposition including the indeterminate meaning. For example, "my brother's taxi" is indeterminate. Since we can not distinguish whether it is used to express the taxi my brother owns, the taxi my brother drives, the taxi my brother rents, the taxi my brother is going to catch, or the taxi my brother goes to work on and etc.

To sum up, because of the unclear boundary and the indefinite criteria, addition to it a continuous range of values, the meaning of fuzziness is a part of the expression vagueness. At the moment, vagueness is used its broadest sense which is also the point we use in this paper, including the coming analysis.

2.Vagueness vs. Ambiguity

Although the two terms are different, some people often confuse them, to such an extent that, they use ambiguous examples to interpret vagueness.

According to Zhang Qiao, he holds that ambiguity is expression with more than one competing but distinct meaning; while for vagueness; distinct meaning can not be identified. It seems that vagueness has borderline and a single meaning. Therefore, homonymy and polysemous words lead to ambiguity not vagueness. For instance, “It is good whether” is vague because of the one meaning of “good”, and we do not know how good it is. “She has a good leg.” is ambiguous because of the several meaning of “good”. We can not decide whether it means “athletic” or “healthy” or “beautiful” (liao1).The answer varies from context to context, from individual to individual.

Compare with vagueness, ambiguities are less use in actual texts, because contextual clues generally make clear which meaning is appropriate, but vagueness is possible in many causes because it expresses one meaning which is not clear or distinct. For instance, "Jane has my book." has one meaning: Jane has my book, but the expression is not clear. Does it mean a book written by me, or owned by me, or borrowed by me? So that the sentence is vague but not ambiguous. (Liao2)

3.Vagueness vs. Generality

Wu Yaxin defines generality is as follows: "an expression is general if it is the super ordinate to other relevant expressions, which are considered as its hyponym." With Zhang Qiao's view on generality “the meaning of an expression is general if it does not specify certain details, i.e. generality is an unspecified matter.” in mind, Ms Wu gives her viewpoint above; she adds her idea that if we use unspecified word here, it would be difficult to draw a demarcation line between generality and vagueness. For instance, “Rose got a rose.” is general and cause an unclear meaning if we want to know whether Rose has a red, or a white rose, a yellow rose, or a black rose.

Generality covers Hyponymy, the vertical relationship existing between a specific and a general expression is the connotation of hyponymy. For example,“ sweet” and “chocolate”, the semantic field of “chocolate” lies within “sweet”. In this case, it is clear to see "chocolate" belongs to “sweet”, but sometimes generality is a means and vagueness is the result of it. For example, a child is expecting his mother to buy chocolate to him says in vagueness by using the general terms: "How I wish someone to send me chocolate and I will have the confidence to get full marks in this coming exam."

三、 The Functions of Vague Language in Business English Letters

As is well known, business language requires precision but avoid vagueness. In fact, both vagueness and precision are the innate characteristics of natural language; business language is not an exception. Sometimes, in order to run the business transactions well, vague language is used for particular and diversified reasons. It should concern the following communicative purposes and intentions by Channel (173-192):

(1) Giving the right amount of information

(2) Deliberately withholding information

(3) Using language persuasively

(4) Lexical gaps

(5) Lacking specific information

(6) Displacement

(7) Self-protection

(8) Power and politeness

(9) Informality and atmosphere

(10) Women's language

This study concentrate on the deliberate use of vague language in business English letters, so only these uses: giving the right amount of information; deliberately withholding information; using language persuasively; self-protesters; power and politeness; informality and atmosphere; women's language, given by Channel will be discussed as the functions of vague language. As we all know that it is difficult for a theory to be perfected a linguistic phenomenon or a complete interpretation. Every theory has its strong points and weak points. Therefore, in this study, the Channel’s theory is supposed to construct the theoretical framework for the analysis of vague language in business English letters. With these functions of vague language, business people may use vague language as a communicative strategy in different context in order to maintain the goodwill between the parties involved. Vague language may turn out to be a powerful tool in good business writing and successful business transactions. However, vague expressions in some contexts are used to confuse the addressee deliberately, this may cause to misunderstanding or cheating.

This section associates with some actual articles and materials to make a try to explore and summarize both the positive and negative functions of vague language in business English letters.

(一) An overview of Business English Letters

As we know, business communication will reach a possible agreement at last, no matter what manners both sides use, it is basined on the common interests and conflicting interests put the cooperation further or break-up. Wall defines that business communication is a process through which two or more parties coordinate an exchange of goods or services and attempt to agree upon the rate of the exchange for them.

Business letters is a kind of communication, specifically, “a piece of conversation by post” (Yang, 15). The participants take turns as being the addresser and the addressee have their special audience and definite purpose, so the communication is carried on by written forms. "business letters are different from other literary discourses, Brown and Yule said that "they do not call for the elegant language of literature and the main difference between business letters and other types of discourses lies in the language and style." It seems a reasonable answer to the trait of business English letters from a large number of articles and materials which other people research.

Business letters are hard to classify because there are great classifications from different angles, such as the different functions, the content of the letters. It seems that it is impossible to carry out a complete and perfect classification for the business letters. There are the same things among some types of letters above if we found carefully. Sometimes, it is difficult to distinguish one letter from another. Therefore, there is a need to give a general classification for the following analysis of vague language in business English letters. According to Stewart (qtd. in Yang, 17), there are four different kinds of information in terms of its effect on the readers’ needs: good news, neutral news, bad news and persuasion. Accordingly, there are good-news letters, neutral-news letters, bad-news letters and persuasive letters. In addition, order letters, inquiry letters and replies to inquires and adjustment letters can be sub-classified into good-news or neutral-news letters, Refusing letters can be classified into bad-news letters and sales letters and collection letters into persuasive letters.

四、 Functions of Vague Language in Business English Letters and Some Suggests

(一) Positive Functions of Vague Language in Business English letters

It is known that vague language playing an important role in the linguistic communication own to vagueness, communication operates smoothly, so does business English letters. The businessmen often use vague expressions purposely for their contribution to the messages. Generally speaking, positive functions of vague language in business English letters are as follows:

1.Increasing the Accuracy of Language Expressions

The American philosopher Grice said that in the communicative activities, parties should observe some basic norms in order to ensure the communication going on successfully. Since there are situations in which one is reluctant to be very precise or accurate, businessmen may make use of vague language intentionally. In the objective reality, there are too many “boundary phenomena”, in other words, things and phenomena that belong to objective reality manifest indeterminacy. Vagueness is sometimes an important means of appropriately stating or expressing these indeterminate uncertain things and phenomena (Hyland440). Accuracy attributes to vagueness in some contexts, businessmen use vague terms to seek accuracy of expressions in business English letters. For instance:

(1) “in general” our payment terms are by irrevocable letter of credit at sight and we do not accept D/P term.

“In general” is used to quality the validity of the state of affairs expressed in the message. The humble example indicates that the vague expression “in general” weakens the force of certainty, thus it guards against possible refutation and enhances the accuracy of expression, as they suggest the objectivity in conveying the sense that the information may be held to be true. So, the businessman ensures that the information he provides only represents his own opinion, but not others’ opinion. Whether the information is true or not is unclear due to the use of “in general”.

(2) The responsibility for the losses many rest with the shipping company and we suggest you yourself make the claim for compensation.

“May” expresses the tone of inference, but not clearly how deeply the possibility is. The addresser describes his view objectively and shirks his responsibility of the losses. The tone of “suggest” is so relaxed that other sides feel available easily. Instead of saying absolutely, the businessmen use vague expressions to make the sentence more accurate. Therefore, we can see that vague language is commonly adopted when posting developing trends or predicting future situations in order to avoid absoluteness.

2.Enhancing the Flexibility of Language Expressions and Achieving the Self-protection

According to Channel, the speakers try to have self-protection, namely, the speakers use vague language in order to avoid being considered to offer wrong information to others in the future. In the special situation, when the replies to some questions are beyond your authority or it is the improper time to answer these questions, the use of vague language may be considered as a good choice because it can offer you a relatively flexible space to move back and fro. For example:

(1) Should your price be found competitive and delivery date acceptable, we intend to place a large order with you. (Yi Xiaoying, 45)

The vague words “competitive”, “acceptable” and “a large” have not been definite meaning which gives certain freedom for the addresser in the business exchange. The purpose is to let the addressee interpret messages the way he wants to and then give the addresser the leeway for further change according to the market fluctuation.

(2) At present we are interested in your cosmetics, details as per our Enquiry Note No.1345 attached, and shall be glad to receive your lowest quotation as soon as possible.(Yi Xiaoying,50)

The vague expression "as soon as possible" serves as stalling tactics, although the board's opinion to promises to accept the addresser's lowest quotation, which quotation is the lowest is unclear. So the result of the disposal can be manipulated flexibly by the addressee according to actual situation.

From the above examples, we can see that the businessmen may have flexible manipulation through vague language. At the same time, the tone sounds sincere when use vague language and the vague language will enhance the cooperation between the two parties.

3.Deliberately Withholding Information, Promoting the Trade Cooperation

Vague language makes the expressions more measured and tactful, especially some sensitive items, such as both sides' benefit. Concealing the true situation, avoiding conflicts and expressing your own ideas are the functions of vague language. Based on the politeness and cooperation principles, the addresser not only maintain his benefit but also consider other sides' feeling fully in order that both sides keep their trade relationship just like the usual. For example:

We should revert to the question of sole agency when the business between us has developed to our mutual satisfaction.

From the above example, it seems that the addresser is positive and cooperated, but "mutual satisfaction" actually withholds negative information, namely, the addresser refuses other sides' demand of "sole agency". This vague expression makes the addresser understanding the withholding information easy, additionally, it is very kindly to protect other sides' face from being threatened and maintain the cooperative relationship.

As we all know, the businessmen often do their best to deliberately withhold information in actual business transactions. Particularly, it is unchangeable when the price of the goods is given to the customer. So, the businessman answers the customers' inquiries with vague words, especially the price. Vague language give both the businessmen an opportunity to change the price is easy to be changed so that customers can make right response to the price.

4.Indicating You-attitude, Expressing Business Cultivation

Courtesy and amicability is known as the general principles that business writing must consider, so it is necessary to use vague language because that is one of the best ways to express politeness. Simultaneously, the appropriation of use of vague language is also one of the standards to balance the professional character of the members of a company and improve the image of the company into the public. For instance:

(1) I'm afraid that the proposal you put forward isn't up too much.

The addresser expresses his disagreement through the vague and negative words, avoiding cruelly say" I do not agree with your proposal." and leave well impression on the addressee. There is no doubt that this proper letter makes the best and fake advertisement for the company.

According to the above analysis, we can see that proper use of vague language can fully indicate you-attitude that requires dealing with business from other sides' standpoint and satisfy other sides’ needs. Therefore, vague language plays a significant role in indicating you-attitude which will enhance the cooperation between both sides and give a positive impression of your company to the addresser.

(二) Negative Functions Vague Language in Business English Letters

Vague language, just like everything has two antagonistic sides, is not always positive. There is a negative effect in business English letters in some contexts. So the addressee may not be able to distinguish the true or false messages, and then cause difficulty. For example:

(1) As to the steamers sailing from Hong Kong to San Francisco, we have bimonthly direct services.

Vague word “bimonthly” is unclear, so what is “bimonthly” means? It means twice a month or once two months. Obviously, the expression has two meaning which will cause troubles to the addressee. It should interpret clearly:

a. We have two direct sailings every month from Hong Kong to San Francisco.

b. We have semimonthly direct sailing from Hong Kong to San Francisco.

c. We have a direct sailing from Hong Kong to San Francisco every two months.

The principle of concreteness in the business English writing demands the message specific, definite and vivid. Especially some letters require clear-cut response or reply the questions which other sides mention, offers, acceptances and so on. It will reduce the social efficiency when you use the vague language in the place where they need concretive expressions. For example:

(2) The Fareast Co. is one of our big buyers.

It is not detailed to reply the trade data of company, because "one of big buyers" is not specific, we don't know how big it is, so it is better amend it as follow:

The Fareast Co. placed U.S. $200,000,000.00 worth of business with us last year.

From the example above, we can see that under some circumstances, vague language does not give the addresser an edge in business communication, however, it may lead to trouble for the parties involved. Therefore, we should use vague language in business English letters which can help the addresser realize some communicative purposes or make the communication going smoothly and avoiding the negative functions of vague language.

(三) Some Suggests

Through analysis of above, it is proposed that there are two functions of vague language: the positive functions and the negative functions in business English letters. The positive functions may be helpful for further cooperation, but the negative functions will cause misunderstanding or cheating. Therefore, we should do great effort to make the positive functions and avoid the negative functions when adopting vague language. Generally speaking, the vague expressions in the business English letters often appear in the following two situations:

(1) Refusing gently and Leave a way out

There is an example: What you mentioned in your letter in connection with the question of agency has had our attention and we shall give this matter careful consideration and shall revert to it later on.

“Has had our attention” and “shall give this matter careful consideration” are not expressed clear details and attitude. It seems that the addresser has not agreement but also not refusing which make the other side confused. “Revert to it later on” is vague; too, because it holds another meaning, there is no opportunity to talk in the near future. Another is that this expression considers other sides’ feelings and the ability of acceptances fully, and then maintains the business English relationship of both sides.

(2) Unwilling to interpret the details and self-protection.

This situation exists in some contexts. For example:

If the Supplier fails to commence the work necessary to remedy such defect or any damage to the Equipment caused by such defect within a reasonable time, the Buyer may carry out such work in a reasonable manner, and the reasonable direct costs incurred by the Buyer in connection there will shall be paid to the Buyer by the Supplier, providing that the labor costs included in such costs shall be calculated based on the local costs incurred in the country in which the contract plant is to be constructed.

There are three vague words in the above example. How long is “within a reasonable time”? What way is “in a reasonable manner”? How much is “the reasonable direct costs”? All these have not specification, but the application of vague language used at this moment is appropriate avoiding speaking absolutely and trapping in passive situation.

From the above-mentioned example, we can see that use of vague language should control in a degree, or it will not gain the predicting result. So the addresser will advance and retreat freely when he masters the degree of using vague language, at the same time, it will not break out the trade relationship of both sides.

五、 Conclusion

In this paper, the study on when and why people use vague language in business English letters. Many examples are used in this paper to explore the situations of vague language in several of business English letters and its positive and negative functions. As a result, the analysis on this paper aims to help people realize and understand how to use vague language as a strategy to meet their communicative intentions. The functions of vague language in business English letters can cause people’s attention to use it in actual situations.

Although this study has been done mainly on English data, there are some questions about what situations in verbal business communication. People may also do some effort on this item. We can sure that people will discover the importance of vague language in business letters.

Reference

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篇8

【关键词】有效教学;教学目标;教学策略;教学评价

应试教育向素质教育转轨的今天,教学效率被赋予了特殊的意义。教学改革尤其是新课程改革旨在增效,即提高课堂教学效率。但是在实施过程中,无效的现象大量存在,我们应该看到,教学的无效是导致学生负担过重的一个重要原因,教学低效和无效本身成为实施素质教育的最大障碍。一些情景教学减轻了学生的独立感悟,一些启发式教学堆砌了太多无效的提问,一些合作学习变成了无效的玩耍,一些自主探索变为了低效的“放养”。要深化教育改革,提高教学质量,我们需要有效教学。

“有效教学”是指教师遵循教学活动的客观规律,以最优的过程和最大的效率、效益,实现学生在知识与技能、过程与方法、情感态度与价值观“三维目标”上的整合,从而达到预期的教学目标,促进学生综合素质的提高。成都大学的严先元教授给出了有效课堂教学的衡量标准,他认为应从三方面给予评价:教学取得了预期的效益;教学提升了学生的素质;教学促进了主体的参与。结合个人的理解和课堂教学实践,我认为有效课堂教学应该包括以下涵义:

一是体观“以学生发展为中心”的教学思想,确立学生的主体地位,有效教学的目的就是关注全体学生的进步,促进全体学生主动、和谐、全面发展。在有效课堂教学中,所有学生对学习始终有着高昂的学习情趣,都在为实现愿景而积极、主动、有效地学习。

二是教师与学生共同创建学习共同体,学习形式主要是小组合作学习。教师不再是唯一的传授者,知识权威的象征者,而是学生学习的高级合作伙伴,是真正意义上的学习者,是学生学习活动的设计者,也是学生学习效果的研究者。教师的主要责任是指导学生学会自主、合作、探究学习,培养自主学习习惯,提高自主学习能力。

三是关注单位时间的学习效益和质量。教师和学生要树立极强的时间意识与效益观念,在有效教学中教师要提供策略性、智慧性指导,指导学生学会单位时间内如何提高学习绩效.提高学生在单位时间内发现问题、分析问题、解决问题的能力。

四是全面落实课程目标。在有效课堂教学中,根据国家课程标准和目标,师生共同开发和利用有效课程资源,通过有效学习方式理解文本“三维”目标,实现知识问题化,问题能力化。并通过多元化评价,实现“三维”目标,全面提高所有学生的学业成就,促进学生知识、能力、人格、性格等方面的和谐发展。

五是促进教师专业成长。有效教学过程是一种教学研究活动,教师通过不断反思自己的教学行为和策略,学会发现问题、创新实践、积累经验和历练智慧,不断提高有效教学能力,使教师专业素质得到持续发展。

要达成以上方面,笔者认为进行有效课堂教学时,教师应该贯彻如下三原则:

一、有效课堂教学应当合理设计并充分实现课堂教学目标的原则

教学目标是教师教学意图的一个清晰和明确的描述。在“学生中心说”和“生成性课堂”观念的影响下,预设教学目标的做法受到了质疑。有效教学的研究成果肯定了教学目标设定的必要性和重要性,认为教学目标的合理设定是有效教学的要素之一。加里・鲍里奇在论述有效教学的五种关键行为时,其中之一就谈到了“任务导向”,即定制教学目标。在对课堂教学的研究中,研究者认为教学计划将影响学生的内容。因此,不是要不要设立课堂教学目标的问题,而是怎样设立合理有效的课堂教学目标的问题。课堂教学目标是否合理可以从以下五点来考察:①课堂教学目标是否与学年、学期、单元计划协调一致;②课堂教学目标是否适合教学内容和现有的教学资源;③课堂教学目标是否在教学中转换成了学习主体――学生的学习目标,包括课堂教学目标是否从学习者的需要出发进行设计,是否考虑了学生对学习目标的理解能力,目标是否落在了学生的“最近发展区”;④课堂教学目标是否能根据课堂教学进展情况和学生的实际表现体现出一定的弹性,有学者认为这是课堂互动阶段的制定教学计划;⑤课堂教学目标是否体现了促进学生的终身发展尤其是终身学习的要求。

需要说明的是,研究并未肯定在所有的课堂教学中都应当向学生提供明确的学习目标,但表明,为学生提供学习目标,可以促进他们进行一些组织松散,结构性较弱的活动,如进行演讲、研究计划等还表明,在系统的直接讲授的课堂中,教师清晰而简要地告知学生教学的目标是一种有效的教学方式。为学生提供教学目标应当简明,便于学生理解和操作,加涅认为一堂课中,如果给学生提供了多个目标,还应使学生明了目标之间的关系。此外,建构主义的学习理念强调让学生参与提出学习目标并选择达到目标的方法与途径。

有效课堂教学首先要考察课堂教学目标的合理有效性,然后再考察课堂教学目标达成的程度,教师花费多长的教学时间达到了这些目标,效率如何总之,能否设立合理的教学目标并充分地达成应当是衡量有效课堂教学的首要标准。

二、有效课堂教学应选择适切教学策略的原则

课堂教学策略是一堂课中所有教学方法的有机整合。课堂教学方法种类很多,每一种方法都具有其适用的有效范围,它的选择受制于教育理念、教学目标、教学内容、学生的具体特征以及教学环境等,对于同样的教学内容教师可以选择不同的教学策略,但是一定不能违背适切性的原则。

国外的有效教学研究中,最值得我们借鉴的是他们研究的微观化,对于教学方法,除了考察诸如合作学习、发现学习、直接讲授和个别化教学等模式在不同情境中的有效性外,他们还仔细地考察了每一种模式之下的讲述、提问、讨论、反馈、练习、复习、课堂自评等教学方法的使用细则。这一系列的研究以加涅的学习与教学理论为代表,近几十年又有许多研究者的教学策略专著问世,例如:艾伦・C・奥斯丁所著的《有效教学策略》一书列举了教学策略有11种之多;又如坎贝尔则在其书中为教师和学生总结出101条已被证明是成功的教与学的策略。这种对课堂教学的近似科学的、条分缕析式的研究,其结果是为教师的教学实践提供了具体的可操作的指导法则。

要保证教学策略的有效性,还要注意不同教学方法之间的取长补短,任何一种方法都有使用的局限性,需要其他方法加以补充。此外,一种方法的大量而长时间的使用,也会造成学生的乏味与疲劳。那么,应该如何选择适切的教学策略呢?我们可以从以下几个方面入手:

(1)把握好一节课的开端:一节课的开端,上课一开始以趣引入,会激发学生强烈的兴趣。教师要根据教学内容精心设计课题的引入,教师要把课堂教学变成一种向知识奥秘探索的活动,甚至是神秘的探究活动,一开课就要把学生的兴趣勾起来。开端引趣的方式有很多,主要有:联旧引新、制造悬念、故事激趣、渲染气氛、描绘形象、激感、设疑问难、直观演示、解题释意、引用资料、联系已知、启发谈话、概括提示、寻找发现等,一节课的开端实在太重要了,它如同在战斗中选择一个突破口一样,辉煌的战果就是从这里开始的。俗话说“好的开始是成功的一半”,因此,要提高课堂教学的有效性必须重视开端时的趣味性。

(2)不同年级采用不同要求和方法:如低年级,由于年幼好动,所以教师可以在保证完成教学任务时适当补充些学生感兴趣的小趣闻、小轶事等,还可以编排一些游戏,使学生置身于其中,激发学生的学习兴趣,使他们学得轻松愉快。中级由于学生面临学业水平测试,学习并不是太轻松,但复习时可以采用多种方式,如让学生自己列复习提纲、默写竞赛、自己根据考纲编写考卷等,让学生体会到成功。高年级面临毕业考试,所以学起来就更不轻松了,教师更要注意方法,除丰富他们的课外活动外,还可以用多媒体上课,除了复习书本内容外,增加历年的毕业试题及相应的背景也会吸引学生的注意力的。

(3)不同的技能训练相结合,如选择、判断、材料分析等。并在训练中引导学生参与竞争也是提高学生学习兴趣吸引学生的注意力的重要措施。

(4)动、静结合起来,如既有情景剧、竞赛等让学生兴奋的活动,又有默写、分析等让学生安静的活动。

(5)多种互动的形式相结合,如师生、生生个人、小组集体互动相结合。(强调一下,在师生互动时,教师一定要走下讲台和学生融为一体。)

(6)旨在提高语言表达准确性的和旨在提高分析能力的活动相结合。

(7)教师控制的练习和学生自由运用材料活动相结合。

(8)需要高度集中注意力和积极思维的活动与活泼的活动相结合。

三、有效课堂教学应选择充满活力的评价的原则

如何有效评价学生,这是一门很高深的艺术。评价不仅要关注学生学习成绩,而且要发现和发展学生的多方面的潜能,了解学生发展中的需求,帮助学生认识自我、建立自信。发挥评价的教育功能,促进学生在原有水平上的发展。教师对学生的评价无时不有,应贯穿于教师与学生的所有活动中。教师的课堂教学评价,直接影响到学生对知识技能的掌握和思想感情的发展。一堂课的成功与否,不只在于教师事先精心设计好的每一句教学语言是否精彩,更在于师生双向交流过程中教师有没有充满教育机智的教学评价的有效发挥。有效的课堂教学评价不是停留于表层的做秀,也不是可有可无的衔接,而是在整体深刻理解文本和学生实际后焕发的自然而然的创设和生成。在课堂教学中,要注意以下几方面:

1.准确得体,催生活力

评价是一种价值判断的活动,是主体对客体满足需要程度所做出的判断。在课堂上的直接表现就是教师用常用语言等对学生的学习行为、过程、结果等进行判断,再行褒奖、指导。首先课堂教学评价必须准确。准确性是课堂教学评价的灵魂,没有“灵魂”,教师的课堂教学评价就没有了生命力。教师的课堂教学评价应该客观地指出学生的长处和存在的缺点,既不能一味的肯定评价,也不能一味的批评,要让学生知道哪是好的,哪是不好的;哪是对的,哪是错的,错在何处。准确的课堂教学评价还需我们关注课堂中生成的细节,及时提醒学生,有效地帮助学生纠正错误。

2.捕捉亮点,学会赏识

德国教育家第斯多惠说“教学的艺术不在于传授本领,而在于激励、唤醒和鼓舞”。学生需要教师的激励,激励能激发人的潜能,能使人心智开启,灵感涌动。学生在宽松、和谐、民主的自由空间里与老师、学生进行心灵的碰撞、生命的融合,不断获得成功的体验,并在成功中走向成功。

在课堂教学中,教师应及时捕捉学生的闪光点,给以鼓励。成功,哪怕只是一点点,对一个学生树立自信意识也是极为有益的。因此,教师在课堂上不要吝啬对学生参与教学活动的赏识与赞许,要及时送上充满激励的评价,让学生不断获得前进的动力,增强自信心,检验成功的快乐。也只有这样,我们的课堂才会折射出智慧的光芒,才会充满生机和活力。

3.尊重差异,期待成长

教师的评价要做到因人而异,要针对不同的学生采用不同的评价标准。因此,教师要了解他们的基础,关注他们的发展状况和努力程度,尊重差异,为每个学生的发展创造宽松的环境,并给予具体指点和引导,耐心期待学生一点点成长、进步。

著名的教育评价家斯塔佛尔姆强调:“评价不在于证明,而在于改进”, 因此,有效的课堂教学评价要求教师评价时不只是简单的判断或褒奖,而应注重具体引导,应更多的从内容、方法等方面去点拨和启发。

教育,是一种温暖的抚爱,“没有爱就没有教育。”教师在课堂教学中评价学生时,心中要有“爱”,要做到“每句话背后都是一颗心”,从爱护学生的角度出发,不管是肯定的还是否定的评价一定是发自内心,真心实意,做到“动之以情,晓之以理”。教育家陶行知先生说:“教育是心心相印的活动,惟独从心里发出来的,才能打动心的深处。”学生感受到老师的真诚,才会接受老师的评价。教师情真意切的评价,定会让学生如临春风,如沐春雨。

参考文献:

篇9

[关键词]书写原则 清晰原则

[中图分类号]H31[文献标识码]A[文章编号]1009-5349(2011)10-0044-01

引言

随着世界经济建设的蓬勃发展和文化交流的不断扩大,世界各国的人们之间以Internet为媒介的商务函电交往也越来越多。正规的商务信函在与客户建立、发展和维持业务关系方面起着积极的促进作用。在当今如此快节奏的商务活动中,写作商务信函最直接的目的莫过于进行有效的沟通和交流,以及作为交易的书面凭证。我们写作商务信函的重点是在快速的基础上,清晰地表达商贸信息。

一、概述

从总体来说,我们在写商务信函时,要严格遵守并灵活运用“7C”原则,要在不影响意思表达完整、准确、具体、礼貌的基础上,做到开门见山、直入主体、言简意赅。

二、商务英文函电中书写规则中的清晰原则

所谓清晰原则就是语言表达清楚,以便对方正确地理解书信内容。写信人应该尽量将自己的意思在商务英语信函中恰当地使用常见的和人们都熟悉的词,可以使得信函更加清晰明了。但是,如果使用一些不常用的,只会使自己的信函变得生涩难懂,给自己的商务伙伴带去麻烦。

(一)避免使用可能产生不同理解或意义不明确的词汇

如:As to the steamers sailing from Dalian to San Francisco, we have bimonthly direct services. 如不看bimonthly这个时间副词,那它的意思是:从大连港到圣弗朗西斯科港有直达船。但在商业贸易中,对时间的要求是很严的。而bimonthly这个词有两个含义:第一个含义是一个月两次,第二个含义是两个月一次。如果读者知道此词有两成含义,就会与对方进行确认。但不免让读者心中对对方产生办事不谨慎的印象。如果读者不知道此词有两层含义,那对以后在交易过程中可能麻烦就大了。因此,最好不用bimonthly这一词,清楚明白地说明“一个月两次”还是“两个月一次”。应改写成:

(a)We have two direct sailings every month from Dalian to San Francisco.(每月有两次直达船)

(b)We have semimonthly direct sailing from Dalian to San Francisco.(每半月有一次直达船)

(c)We have a direct sailing from Dalian to San Francisco every two months.(每两个月有一次直达船)

(二)注意修饰语在句中的位置,有时修饰词在句中的位置不同,会有不同的含义

如:(a)We shall be able to supply 20 cases of the item only.(b)We shall be able to supply 20 cases only of the item. 以上两句中only 的修饰的内容分别item和20 cases.

(三)注意句子结构,特别是代名词、关系代词和先行词的关系

按照英语的就近修饰原则,句子中的代名词和关系代词一般是修饰离得最近的名词,因此要特别注意,以免引起误解或不清楚。如:We send you 2 samples yesterday of the goods which you requested in your letter of October 11 by airmail.(我方昨日寄给贵公司2个货物样品,此样品是贵公司10月11日寄来的航空信件中所要的。)按国际贸易惯例,航空邮寄样品是惯行做法。此句最好改成:Yesterday we send you, by airmail,2 samples of the goods which you requested in your letter of October 11.(我方昨日航寄给贵公司10月11日来信所要的2个货物样品。)

(四) 归纳信的内容,恰当地分段

商业书信要写得使人一读就明白,因此必须按照内容仔细和恰当地分段落,一般的分段落原则是一个段落一个意思(A paragraph for each point is a good general rule.)。现举例说明:要写一封买方第一次询价的信。信的内容大体有三点:1.提及了获悉对方信息的途径;2.直入主题,说明订购打算;3.希望对方回信报盘时所包含内容,即收信人下一步应做什么。按照这三点,适当地分成三个段落,有些地方要进一步写明,可能读起来就清楚易懂,对方更能领会买家意图。

三、总结

全球经济一体化与社会信息化需要高素质的商贸人才,商贸人才最基本的功底是要写出一封通俗易懂、简洁、务实、高效的商务信函,而商贸信函内容能清晰地表达出来又是根本中的根本。

【参考文献】

篇10

精益供应链的最终目标是实现建筑供应链各环节的无缝连接和一体化运作,强调核心企业(一般为总承包商)与其他供应链节点企业,如材料供应商、机械设备租赁商、设计分包商、施工分包商、劳务分包商等强强联合,建立战略合作伙伴关系,构筑精益建筑供应链,从而实现从工程投标、设计、咨询、材料采购、机械设备租赁或购买、工程施工,到竣工验收、移交业主等整个链条各个环节的高效协同工作,降低整个供应链的成本,提高客户的满意度。由于精益建筑供应链的整体绩效不仅取决于建筑供应链上各节点企业的企业绩效,还受到各节点企业之间合作关系和协作程度的影响,因此精益建筑供应链的绩效评价应是一项全面的、复杂的、动态的系统工程,其评价内容应涵盖供应链的内部绩效(各节点企业的企业绩效)、外部绩效(各节点间的合作关系和协作程度)以及供应链综合绩效三个方面。

精益建筑供应链绩效评价结果的准确性以及评价过程的繁简程度在很大程度上取决于供应链绩效评价指标选取得当与否以及指标数量的多少。本文在选取精益建筑供应链绩效评价指标时,主要遵循了如下的几个基本原则:第一,选取的指标必须能够反映当前我国建筑业的现实状况,指标涉及的内容应是建筑企业普遍关注的重点问题;第二,选取的指标应与我国的会计及统计制度相衔接,其计算依据资料具有较强的可得性,即较易从企业现有的会计核算资料中获得;第三,所选取的各指标之间,应在涵盖的内容上不重叠,而在解释功能上互相配合互相补充;第四,精益建筑供应链绩效评价体系必须囊括能对内部绩效、外部绩效和供应链整体绩效做出评价的指标;第五,选取的指标应易于量化。根据以上原则建立如下的精益建筑供应链绩效评价指标体系(见表1)。

精益建筑供应链绩效评价方法的选择

(一)标杆法的优势

目前普遍采用的供应链绩效评价方法,可以划分为定性分析和定量分析两大类。单纯的定性分析主观性大,容易受到各种主观因素的影响,精确性不高,所以近年来学者纷纷转向定量分析,其中主成分分析法、模糊综合评判法、数据包络分析法(DEA算法)应用较为广泛。但是,这几种方法也有其内在缺陷。例如,主成分分析法需要收集大量的数据;模糊综合评判法不能解决评价指标间相关造成的评价信息重复问题,且各因素权重的确定带有一定的主观性;DEA算法在建模过程中,指标选择不当可能会导致无解以及精度不高的缺陷,其数学意义也过于高深,实际操作难度很大。标杆法本质上是一种以实践与过程为导向的管理方式,其基本思想包括系统优化、持续改进和不断完善。与其他绩效评价方法相比较,标杆法的突出优势在于:第一,避免了纯粹定量或纯粹定性分析的缺陷,通过参照同类标杆指标(定性和定量指标均有),更为直接、方便地找出其本身存在的不足。第二,标杆法有助于企业从长期战略角度思考和确定企业的未来目标,克服其他评价方法只能从短期策略角度进行考量和评价的缺点。标杆法可以清楚地显示供应链在其行业中所处的竞争地位,从而便于供应链决策者制定有针对性的中长期竞争战略。第三,标杆法实现了定性和定量分析的有机结合,有助于提高供应链绩效评价的科学性和系统性,减少主观因素的影响,能够真正实现基于事实的比较,而且由于标杆法的针对性很强,建筑供应链管理者和利益相关者能基于标杆法的评价结果提出更具针对性的管理改进方向。因此,标杆法在精益建筑供应链绩效评价中具有不可替代的优势。

(二)标杆法进行供应链整体绩效评价的步骤

标杆法是指通过比较起点(亦即当前绩效)与标杆指标绩效的差距来直观地反映当前供应链绩效水平与目标供应链绩效水平之间的差距,以便从整体上优化供应链业务流程、合理配置供应链资源来减少绩效差距。基于标杆法的供应链绩效评价的实施步骤具体如下:

1.建立绩效评价指标体系。这也就是上一部分所建立的精益建筑供应链绩效评级指标体系。

2.属性值标准化。属性值标准化是指要确定各项绩效评价指标的目标值,并以该目标值作为参照标准。目标供应链可以是该行业中居领先地位的供应链,或是行业中符合所有或绝大多数成功标准的供应链,也可以是公司期望达到的供应链绩效水平。在进行属性标准化这一步骤时,需要计算供应链的每个标准化属性值S,分别有两种不同的情况:一种是属性值趋向于最大化(即指标值越高越好,例如利润率等),另一种是属性值趋向于最小化(也就是指标值越低越好,如返工率)。各绩效评价指标的行业目标值用a表示,各指标的当前值用a可表示。

3.建立模型计算综合评价值。我们用β来表示供应链整体绩效的标杆评价值:当80β100时,表示供应链的整体绩效为优,处于行业优秀水平;当70β<80时,表示供应链的整体绩效为良,处于行业较好水平;当60β<70时,表示供应链的整体绩效一般,处于行业平均水平;当β<60时,表示供应链的整体绩效较差,达不到行业平均水平。β表示供应链整体绩效的标杆评价值;εi表示第i个一级指标的权重值;如果认为第i个一级指标是无效的,则令εi=0;θij表示第i个一级指标中的第j个二级指标的权重值;如果认为第ij个二级指标是无效的,则令θij=0;θi表示第i个一级指标中的[f(i)]个二级指标的权重值的和;mij表示第i个一级指标中的第j个二级指标的实际运作值;sij表示SCM中第i个一级指标中的第j个二级指标的标杆值;ρ(i,j)=-1或1用来表示第i个一级指标中的第j个二级指标与目标值之间是正相关还是负相关。如果两者为负相关的话,则令ρ(i,j)=-1;如果两者为正相关的话,则令ρ(i,j)=l;j=[f(i)]表示j与i之间存在一定的函数关系,并且应取正整数。

实证分析

本文以A项目为实例研究对象来阐明精益建筑供应链绩效评价的具体过程及其应用效果。该项目是一个建筑工程施工总承包项目。在项目具体实施过程中,构建了以某土木工程集团公司为核心企业,并包括建筑供应商、分包商、业主等节点企业的精益建筑供应链。pi=1[f(t)]j=1mijsij如前所述,绩效评价指标的标杆值的选取是绩效评价中的一个核心步骤,它的作用在于:一是通过企业各绩效指标的实际值与标杆值的比较,企业可以及时发现执行计划过程中的偏差,实施有效的纠偏措施;二是为企业的绩效改进指明方向。然而,确定绩效指标的标杆值确实是一个难点。首先是技术方面的障碍。由于企业制定的标准必须贴合企业的实际,所以绩效指标的标杆值不能过高也不能过低,并且应是动态更新的,能够真实地反映企业绩效不断改进的轨迹。其次是数据获取方面的障碍。指标标准需要从多个角度去考虑,应参考多个层面多个渠道的数据来源。本项目在综合参考了企业所积累的历史数据、同行业领先企业的运行情况和企业客户需求三方面资料后,确定了各评价指标的标杆值。根据专家打分法和实际调查法,综合绩效评价公式β=∑(εj∑θij()ρ(i,j))中数值计算如表2所示。