茶文化的寓意范文
时间:2023-07-12 17:40:55
导语:如何才能写好一篇茶文化的寓意,这就需要搜集整理更多的资料和文献,欢迎阅读由公务员之家整理的十篇范文,供你借鉴。
篇1
火是人类最重要的能源。如果没有火,人类不仅会失去物质基础,也会失去心灵、精神和文明;如果没有火,人类就不可能走出蛮荒,不可能建立文明社会。奥运火炬的寓意,来自古希腊神话传说,是为了纪念普罗米修斯,他在烈焰熊熊的太阳车经过时,偷到了火种并带给了人类。火对于人类而言,就是走出野蛮,走向开放,向浩瀚的宇宙索求能量和灵魂。古希腊哲学家赫拉克利特(公元前540年—前480年)认为万物的本原是火,一切都在流变之中。“这个有秩序的宇宙对万物都是相同的,它既不是神也不是人所创造的,它过去、现在和将来永远是一团永恒的活火,按一定尺度燃烧,一定尺度熄灭。”
中国被公认为是世界文化发达最早的文明古国之一。其中青铜文化和陶瓷文化是中国古代文化遗产中的重要组成部分。青铜器和陶瓷产生的元素是一致的,那就是,它们都是金、木、水、火、土的有机组合,并通过其中最关键的媒介——火,而呈现出各自独特的材质感和文化艺术形态。青铜器和陶瓷在逐步的演进中,不断地丰富自身,它们是中华文明的物态化和结晶体。青铜器和陶瓷的源头都来自于原始上古文明,首先可以肯定的是,先有了陶器,而后才有了青铜器。铸造青铜器的“范”、“模”等就是由陶烧成的,可以说,陶瓷和青铜器在中华文明的长河中是共生与互动、相辅相成、此消彼长的。青铜器的材质和器形光致茂美、质地坚硬,符合夏、商、周以来国家的意志和尚“礼”之需及战争武器之坚锐,因而成为当时文化艺术形态的主流,此时代也被称为青铜时代。陶器和青铜器的出现和火的发明与使用有着密切关系。大约8000多年前的新石器时代,人类在实践过程中利用泥土和水混合,捏制出各种造型,然后晒干,烧烤后就成了陶器。陶器的出现,标志着原始人阶段的结束、新石器时代的到来。原始陶器主要是生活用品和祭祀用品,在长期的实践中,人们将本民族对自然、图腾、灵物、祖先的崇拜观念融合到陶器的器形和纹饰中,也形成后来青铜器的观念和审美的有机结合。到公元前4040—前2240年大汶口文化时期,陶器盛行三足器和圈足器,器形有罐形鼎、钵形鼎、壶形鼎、背壶、长颈壶、深腹罐、高柄豆等。这也证明青铜的器形和纹样是在陶鼎的基础上发展而来的。而在6700年前西安半坡出土的迄今为止中国最早的陶瓷乐器——陶埙,还有新石器时代晚期陕西长县客省庄出土的陶饶与商代流行的铜饶基本一致,说明后来的铜饶是由陶饶发展而来。诸如陶鬲(图1)、陶鼓等等发展到青铜乐器体现了青铜时代“礼乐”的博大气势“黄钟大吕”、“八音齐鸣”,达到当时人类金属冶炼和音律学的最高成就。
在上古传说中的黄帝和蚩尤作战时,就有了使用青铜兵器的文献纪录。考古发掘发现的最早青铜器,是1957年甘肃马家窑和马厂文化遗址出土的铜刀(公元前3000年至公元前2300年)。其后,青铜器还在河南偃师二里头遗址中发现,在那里出土了制作原始的青铜小刀、爵、锥、铃等。这些青铜器,多是仿照同时期的石、骨、蚌、陶器制成的,其胎质很薄,铸造工艺稚嫩,带有一定的原始性。它们对社会文化、生产、生活的影响较小,在文化艺术形态上还处于萌芽状态。它们在石器时代的母体中孕育着,与大量的石器、陶器共存,并相互影响相互推动。由制陶工艺所积累的火侯知识和经验影响和推动了冶炼铸造青铜器技术的日渐成熟,铸造青铜器的“范”等就是由陶烧成。而青铜器成型后,其器形稳重、质地坚硬、纹饰光致茂美等优良特性及构图和秩序之美得到了充分体现,体现出中国文化是个道家讲的“气”的世界;另一方面又是个“礼”的世界;青铜材质本身的凝重厚实正好对应了“礼”的庄严齐一,其中的饕餮形象暗合了“礼”的一个重要特征——威严与秩序,成为国家政权、个人身份地位的标志。
文献记载夏代根据国家分成九州而铸九鼎。“夏铸九鼎”说明夏代的青铜铸造已进入高度发展的时期。夏代以后商代青铜器在此基础上得以迅速提升,成为古中国文化精神物化的载体,由于这时期形成了独特的以青铜器为文化艺术形态主流的文明形式而被称为青铜时代。从青铜器文化艺术的形态传承演变历程可将其分为三个发展传承转换阶段:商代的以“神”为中心;周代的以“礼”为中心;两汉时代的以“人”为中心。神性向人性的回归是青铜时代思想观念发展的总趋势。从最初的饕餮纹所表现的尊神事鬼、神性弥漫的社会走向关注现实、注重现实、凸显人性。这种由神性向人性的回归,奠定了中国文化艺术形态以后的发展之路,使中国走上了一条与西方不同的发展道路,即注重此岸世界,而较少关注彼岸世界。青铜文化艺术发展到东汉末期以后,由于制瓷技术成熟,原料丰富,陶瓷较之青铜器在制作上更便捷,使中国陶瓷以迅猛的速度发展壮大起来,并广泛深入地进入社会生活的方方面面,很快取代了青铜器在社会生活中的地位。青铜器退出了文化艺术形态的主流圈而由陶瓷登上了历史的舞台。陶瓷进入魏晋,再经过唐宋的发展,融入宋代“理”学和宋人心态及文人画精神,带来了其在宋元明清的高度发展,成为文化艺术形态的主流,从而使中国进入陶瓷时代(昌南时代——英语中China,字头大写意为中国,字头小写则指瓷器也即是景德镇古称昌南之译音)。以青铜时代和陶瓷时代为两座文化艺术形态的高峰构成了五千年文明的文化艺术形态的演变过程。本文着重从青铜器和陶瓷文化艺术形态解析比较中,推演出中国文化之火的跃动之魅和历史长河的流动之美。
二、青铜时代的文化艺术形态的特点和成就
夏商周青铜器文化艺术形态体现为国家严格控制的礼器,鼎(图2)是青铜礼器中最为重要的一个品种,其造型特征为由腹、足、耳三部分组成。大腹可以盛载食物,高足架空可以烧火加热,空耳可以穿过长杠利于搬运。尽管鼎的实用意义是盛放或烹煮食物,但鼎的真正价值却体现为国家政权、个人身份与地位的标志。它一般多用于统治阶级的祭祀和宴饮,具有区别尊卑贵贱的功能,是权力的象征,并根据地位的不同进行严格等级上的分配使用制度“:天子九鼎,诸侯七鼎,大夫五鼎,元士三鼎或一鼎”。鼎在当时人们的思想意识中占有重要地位,东周时一幕幕问鼎、夺鼎、追鼎的历史传说,及秦始皇泗水捞鼎,汉武帝得鼎改元的历史记载,成语“一言九鼎”、“问鼎中原”、“三足鼎立”等等都源自于鼎的象征意义的引申。青铜器具有记录与传承中华文化历史的功能。青铜器中的铭文内容丰富,有祭祀祖先、征伐、纪功、册命和赏赐等记载,生动而具体地补充了历史文献记载的不足,为研究青铜时代的人文历史提供了重要的原始资料。在祭祀和典礼中青铜乐器更是不可或缺,青铜乐器有如饶、钟、铃、鼓等,并有按音律学原理编成的以编钟、编罄为主的大型青铜乐器组合阵,体现了青铜时代“礼乐”的博大气势。“钟鸣鼎食”即反映了当时在祭祀和典礼的盛况。“黄钟大吕”、“八音齐鸣”是我国古代音乐中所用的两句成语,以“黄钟大吕”来形容音乐的庄严、文辞的庄重或场面的热烈;以“八音齐鸣”来形容各种乐器一起热烈地演奏。湖北随县出土的战国时期的曾侯乙编钟,是目前世界上仅有的保留着原有音响的一套特大型定音古乐器,也是世界上保留下来的最古老的12个半音的乐器。编钟共56件,分上、中、下三层。经检测每件编钟不仅都能发音,而且能发两个不同的音,可以演奏各种现代乐曲,而且音质纯正,音色优美,达到当时人类金属冶炼和音律学的最高成就。
青铜时代把中国文化艺术推进到历史的高峰。春秋战国时期的百家争鸣中产生了分别以老子和孔子为代表的道家思想和儒家思想,形成了中国特有的出世与入世的哲学,它们是几千年来注入到中国人血脉中的宇宙观和人生观。中国艺术从原始到理性的演化,其文学终端是青铜时代的《诗经》。《诗经》中风、雅、颂的排列体现了一种理性的规范,同时也显出一种宇宙观。风、雅、颂是青铜时代的等级秩序,也是一种天人关系。也就是说中华文明的精神内核及框架在青铜时代已经聚集和搭建完成。青铜时代造就了秦汉气魄,使秦汉时期的文化形态显示出一种胸怀之大、力量之大、气魄之大、趣味之大。秦汉文化艺术形态的这种大气魄,来源于青铜的强悍、阳刚、庄重,勃发于新统一的现实力量及容纳万有、法天象地的想象心灵。正是因为秦汉时期民风的淳朴、大气、强悍、阳刚、包容性强,才有了沿用至今的“汉族”、“男子汉”等名词……从青铜器文化艺术的形态传承演变历程可将其分为三个发展传承转换阶段:商代的以“神”为中心;周代的以“礼”为中心;两汉时代的以“人”为中心。神性向人性的回归是青铜时代思想观念发展的总趋势。从战国中期开始的青铜器文化艺术性态以“人”为中心的趋势到汉代得到了最完美的体现,追求人本,体验人生乐趣、容纳万有、法天象地的想象心灵成为时代思潮、时代风貌。这个时期的青铜文化艺术形态的转换——由为以“神”、“礼”为中心转变成为以“人”为中心。青铜器神秘的宗教外衣及庄严的礼制思想被剥离掉了。汉代青铜器在战国的基础上,将春秋以来的诸种青铜工艺推向顶峰,集青铜器铸造工艺之大成。青铜器文化艺术形态的演变过程实质上是:一个由幻想到现实的过程,一个以神为本到以人为本的过程。天人关系的变化是青铜器文化艺术形态演变的关键因素。
中国青铜文化经历了2000余年的发展历程,青铜时代把中国文化艺术推进到历史的高峰,青铜器作为2000余年时代精神和文化艺术的物质载体也留下了时代演变社会变革的痕迹,青铜时代中华文明的精神内核及框架的形成,为陶瓷时代的到来打下了坚实的精神与文化取向的基础。东汉晚期,由于制瓷原料丰富,制瓷技术发展成熟,瓷器制作比青铜铸造更为方便。瓷器没有漆器和铁器本身所有的局限,可以广泛地用于人们日常生活的许多方面,并且它在材质感上的似玉非玉的品性,符合中国人自远古而来形成的玉石文化的精神追求。这样,陶瓷很快取代了青铜器在人们日常生活中的地位。青铜文化演变到以“人”为中心的精神与文化取向及艺术追求为陶瓷奠定了文化根基和美学基础,于是,由陶瓷传承了青铜器作为文化艺术形态主流的历史地位。青铜文化艺术退出了历史的舞台,而由陶瓷闪亮登场。但,这并不说青铜文化已经消亡,随着东汉末年佛教的传入中国,青铜制作的精美的佛像、香炉、法器及钱币、铜镜等等一直在生产铸造。青铜器的文化艺术形态一直在展现它独特的影响和魅力。只是青铜器退出了文化艺术形态的主流圈,而由符合时代需求的陶瓷登上了历史的舞台。
三、陶瓷时代之艺术形态的特点和成就
我们在日常生活中听到的是“陶瓷”,其实陶瓷是陶器与瓷器的统称,从发展的历程来看是先有陶器,后有瓷器,在西汉时陶器和瓷器才分开。魏晋南北朝的中国,进入了瓷器时代。从东汉到南北朝,我国青瓷逐步成熟起来,但这一时期的瓷器无论是造型还是纹饰都与青铜器有联系。这时瓷器的造型特征是清秀挺拔,与当时人们的审美爱好相一致,更多的是反映人和社会,人已成为陶器造型的主体。陶瓷艺术装饰语言反映了人间生活的千姿百态,反映出人们对于自然和自身认识的深入。在这种语境和情境中,其艺术形式体现出中国传统文士的既入世又出世的矛盾状态。魏晋以来,审美风气变化,崇尚古拙质朴、简淡空疏的“六朝风韵”与讲情致、讲风神、讲个性的魏晋风度。这时期少了青铜时代的国家意志和大气磅礴、容纳万有、法天象地的特点,而转为依法自然、逸气飘然、秀骨清相的文人士大夫的风神气韵。唐代是中国艺术的高峰,又是中国文化艺术从前期转向后期的关键。唐代的时代精神体现为丰富的艺术创造,为后期社会奠定了一系列艺术类型和艺术境界的根基。其中青瓷、白瓷、唐三彩代表了唐代陶瓷的最高水平。唐代陶瓷经过丝绸之路广泛传播到海外,促进了中外文化艺术的交流。陶瓷“自唐代始而有窑名”,这种传统习惯一直沿用至今。
陶瓷正渐渐脱离青铜器的影响,开始展现出具有自身特色的文化艺术形态。自魏晋带着深刻社会文化艺术背景的青瓷风行以来,到了宋代得到了更广泛的尊重和发展,并在原有玻璃青釉的基础上,开创出不透明、乳浊状的瓷釉,一改隋朝以来“南青北白”时期的一览无余、可以透彻见底的青釉传统,创造了展现独特艺术形态的乳浊釉、结晶釉、石灰碱釉和多层釉。这样在釉色的运用上,为陶瓷美学开辟了一种新的境界,使其彰显出淳朴、自然、大气的特质,不仅具有玉的质感——“汁水莹润如堆脂”的色泽,还有着自然的开片和窑变,典雅纯洁而令人回味。宋代是“玉的精神”和类玉的品质体现的最为深刻的时代。鈞、汝、官、哥、定五大窑(图3、图4)所取得卓越成就,使中国在人类制瓷史上登峰造极。它那冰肌玉骨般的素雅、沉静品格,成为后世瓷业执著追求的审美典范。宋代不仅传承了历史的优良基因,而且开拓创新,为元明清瓷业的发展奠定了基础。宋代文化将汉唐以来的崇高精神以更为理性的方式进行把握,呈现出一种真正的中庸合度、刚柔相济、天人合一、气象浑成、心与理一的文化范式。这一思想相当重要、内涵也十分丰富。周敦颐的“希圣”、“希贤”,张载的“天人合一”,程颢的“仁体”,程颐的“理”,朱熹的“心与理一”、“气象浑成”,王阳明的“乐是心之本体”,刘宗周的“慎独”,王夫之的“情景妙合无限”等,无不体现着“乐”的基本精神和意义,推动并产生了明清浪漫主义美学思潮和明清之际的重理性、重情理统一的思潮。
宋代陶瓷体现为一种典雅的文化气质之美,内敛、沉静,追求返璞归真的自然主义,以此来体现自然中物性、趣味性和哲思性,上升到了透彻了悟的哲学高度。即使是一般日用陶瓷,也有着体现宋代整体文化风气不俗的气韵和风姿。与宋代卓越的青瓷官窑相比,宋代民窑则更生气勃勃、多姿多彩,同样具有那个时代的强烈烙印。如磁州窑、吉州窑具有千变万化的多彩釉色;黑釉、白釉、窑变釉、釉下彩绘等为元代青花的出现开启了先河,它们是一种雄健、简洁的文化艺术形态。宋代创造了天趣十足、自然活泼的木叶、兔豪、玳瑁、油滴、天目等各类窑变的黑釉作品,经过几百年的风雨沉淀,竟然成了后人难以企及的一座高峰。笔者家乡在福建武夷山脉著名的宋代建窑遗址周边地区松溪县,它是宋代著名九龙窑所在地。从收藏的九龙窑青瓷片和一只建窑的兔豪盏上,我们能深深体会到宋代陶瓷的独特魅力。元代大力发展瓷业,制瓷生产技术的日臻完善、人们审美观念的逐步改变,给古老的瓷业生产带来巨大的发展空间。以彩绘青花瓷与釉里红为代表的釉下彩瓷成了新贵,而瓷器绘画装饰也变为主流。由宋代的追求灰、蟹壳青、灰黄、炒米黄等显示阴柔之美和含蓄之美,转变为开始吸纳异族的粗犷之美。
元代为蒙古族统治,上层阶级整体文化素养不高,文人地位空前降落。“九儒十丐”,儒士在社会地位中排行第九,仅高于乞丐。这造成许多文人画家为生计而投入了陶瓷绘制的生产中。由于使用了釉下彩的技术,釉料在烧制过程中可以产生笔墨在宣纸上的浓淡干枯的微妙变化,使得陶瓷纹饰更加向中国传统的文人水墨画方向靠近。把中国文人画引入陶瓷,在瓷器上题诗作画推动了元代青花瓷器的大步发展,青花瓷成了中国画技巧与制瓷工艺的完美结晶,从而带来了艺术重心的转移和审美趣味的变迁。文化艺术的世俗性继续发展而被整合进文化的整体结构中。起于元代的白地蓝花的青花瓷成熟于明代,青花瓷造型简约、素雅,瓷质如玉温润。无论是从器形还是从纹饰上,它都符合中国文化艺术在传承与转换中形成的简约、自由、合心性的美学基质。它讲究虚静为本、天人合一、中庸合度,具有中国传统文化艺术“把玩”的美学意味。永乐年间的白瓷洁净如玉、薄如纸;宣德年间的青花瓷达到了完美无缺、合度的境界。明代在高温单色釉方面取得了历史性的辉煌成就,成化年间的祭红、宣德年间的祭蓝独步当色釉之冠。著名的景泰蓝又名珐琅,起源于元代,盛行于明景泰年间因其釉料颜色主要以蓝色(孔雀蓝和宝石蓝)为主,古称为景泰蓝。在历经元、明、清三代王朝的传承与转换中,人们创造了灿烂的景泰蓝文化(图5)。
明代宣德炉是继商、周青铜器后另一件傲人的铜铸品,是用金属锌配制铸造的黄铜器,在合金配制、熔炼、铸造及表面处理技术上都达到了一个新的高度。器形上深深地受到宋瓷文化艺术形态的影响。清代的陶瓷,是中国陶瓷文化艺术形态依然风采的又一个高峰。清代是满族统治者,清军入关后在被汉族文化逐步同化整合后,还带着强烈满族文化艺术形态的特征:追求纹饰繁丽、色彩搭配对比强烈。这种特点在中国很多少数民族生活物件和服饰中都能体现出来。所以清代陶瓷文化艺术在彩瓷方面的发展迅猛达到成就巅峰,为中国陶瓷注入了新鲜的血液。清代陶瓷以康熙、雍正、乾隆三个历史时期为繁荣阶段,康熙时期最为精绝的五彩瓷器,其胎骨轻薄、釉色洁白莹亮、画工细腻、色彩柔和、线条流畅。雍乾时的粉彩到了炉火纯青的高度,器形合度,色调温润,鲜艳而不妖冶,立体感强,体现了强烈的时代气息和文化艺术形态的花枝招展。直到现在雍、乾时的粉彩还成为古玩陶瓷拍卖会上竞拍的宠儿。康熙时期的青花瓷在元代明代基础上又更进一步,其青花层次分明,笔韵浓淡如中国画般墨分五色,把中国文人画的笔墨意境和追求充分地转换到青花瓷上,同时还将西洋画技有机融入青花纹饰中(图6)。
中国陶瓷是民族心灵的物态化和结晶体,有着深厚的文化底蕴、内涵,文脉清晰,从而形成了自身世界独有的陶瓷文化,并随着历史的进程不断更新着自身的面貌。我们可看到中国陶瓷文化的文脉在传承与转换中所显现出的鲜明时代特征:秦汉的气魄、六朝风韵、大唐气象、宋人心态、元明清趣味,它们无不闪耀着属于各自时代的、独有的傲人光辉。追溯中国陶瓷文化艺术形态在历史各个时期传承与创新,最醒目的是中国绘画形式在陶瓷上的转换表达方式。中国陶瓷注重艺术形式与内容的并重发展,把客观形式中的抽象生命伸展到最强的限度,并极力清除了强加于人的“物质美”。这就使观众能直接进入陶瓷艺术的精神世界,与之发生内在共鸣。中国陶瓷在器形、纹饰等诸方面已简约到接近点、线、面的抽象形式,这种形式上的视觉冲击和思维上的强烈碰撞产生了新的视点,导致了艺术样式的变动。陶瓷中的精髓就在于造型是否恰到好处地与它的适用度及纹饰和质地完美结合。它注重点、线、面的完美融合,营造成一个神思飞扬、上天入地的境界,时间与空间相互存在,这样的空间构架必须汇入形而上的精神感受,以及具有书法线条的意蕴,而且在造型上的结束处和转折部分强调不着痕迹、天然落成的形象。这是从自然主义的写实中提取到境界层面的抽象的自然,及中国美学精神的“妙造自然”。它类似于中国画中的意境美,即所画的一树一石是虚灵的、表象的,因而,反映到色釉视觉语言上,也是中国式的写实。这种深入内心的精神的写实与中国画的个体思想融于宇宙意识有异曲同工之妙,因为它们都体现了中国哲学精神。中国茶文化促进了陶瓷茶具生产的多样化,构成茶道与茶器的合二为一,有着源远流长的文化内涵。延续至今的茶及茶具的使用,依然成为人们交流文化、思想、情感的精神平台。
同样,中国酒文化促进了从青铜器酒具到陶瓷酒具的大量生产与使用,创造出器形多样、雅致的陶瓷酒器造型。这是中国酒文化与陶瓷文化的融合。民以食为天,锅碗瓢盆等各种陶瓷器具,承载着几千年天南地北的中国丰富的饮食文化。中国陶瓷自汉、唐由“丝绸之路”“、茶马古道”传播到中亚、西亚、欧洲和非洲一带的地区。自宋起从海上丝路(瓷器之路)和陆上“丝绸之路”输往世界各地,促进了中国与世界不同区域的经济、文化、艺术的交流。中国陶瓷的传播对许多国家的文化艺术产生了不同程度的影响。它首先带动了日本、韩国的陶瓷文化艺术的产生,并促使两国各自走出一条充满地域特色的陶瓷之路。同样,它对西亚伊斯兰一带的影响极大,具有伊斯兰文化艺术特征的青花瓷不仅成为伊斯兰人民不可缺少的日常用品,也成为他们装饰庙宇和家庭不可缺少的陈设品。它对欧洲的影响也是巨大的,促进和推动了17世纪追求东方情调的“罗可可”艺术的诞生。陶瓷艺术作为当时中国文化艺术的主流和原创性洋洋洒洒,使中国走向了世界,更使得世界认识和了解了中国文化。
四、结论
青铜器和陶瓷都是金、木、水、火、土的有机组合并通过其中最关键的媒介——火的练就,而呈现出各自独特的材质感和文化艺术形态。它们在历史长河逐步的推演中,共生与互动、传承与转换、此消彼长,不断地丰富自身的文化艺术形态,是两根撑起五千年中华文明的顶梁柱。青铜器和陶瓷是中国文化艺术形态最具代表性的物质载体和文明精神的结晶体,它们承载着深厚的文化内涵,流淌着明晰的文脉,具有浓厚的艺术魅力和强烈的感染力及时代精神。青铜时代把中国文化艺术推进到高峰,春秋战国的百家争鸣中产生了老子和孔子的道家和儒家思想,形成了中国特有的出世与入世的哲学,是几千年来注入到中国人血脉中的宇宙观和人生观,中国文化艺术形态从原始到理性的演化,从“神”到“礼”到“人”的回归,显出一种宇宙观,也是一种天人关系。中华文明的精神内核及框架在青铜时代已经聚集和搭建完成。
篇2
1.在教学时,教师要注意英汉语中具有丰富文化内涵的词汇
如动植物词汇、颜色词汇、地名词汇、数字习语等通过对比分析英汉部分词汇的文化内涵,展示中西方文化差异西方人重理性和逻辑思维,汉民族重悟性和辩证思维,通过让学生了解这种思维习惯上的文化差异。体会其对语言表达方式的影响 进而学习英语语法,减少中国式英语的错误 ,在传递文化知识的同时,教师还要培养学生用英语思维的习惯,以英语思维模式学习英语 排除母语文化和母语思维的干扰,按西方人的观念和思维进行有效的交际,教师要培养学生的阅读兴趣。鼓励学生广泛收集适合自己的阅读材料,如各类报刊,文摘 杂志等,通过大量的阅读 学生可以开阔眼界,有助于在深层次上对异域文化有所了解,教师可以借助此幻灯片,娱乐电影等,增加学生对文化差异的敏感度 。
2.英语教学应注意中西方文化差异比较提高英语教学效果
交际能力不但包括对语言形式的掌握 而且包括对语言使用社会规则的了解和熟识 ,英语教学中教师应遵循语言分析和文化比较相结合的原则 注意对比中西方之间的文化差异 要让学生认识到不同的语言不但在语音、词汇、语法等方面存在着差异,而且在交际规则上有很大的差异,因此学英语的学生不但要了解而且要深入学习英语国家的历史,文化传统 风俗习惯 交际规则,生活方式等诸多方面的知识,与此同时 教师还必须不断引导学生加强对本国文化的学习。使他们逐步提高对本国文化的认识,在比较中西方文化的基础上把握二者之间的差异,从英语教学中如何培养跨文化交际能力,避免文化冲突从以上的分析可以看出,在我们与西方的交往过程中,确实存在着很多文化方面的冲突,直接影响到了跨文化交往的效果,为了改变这一状况,我们极有必要在实际教学中培养学生的跨文化交际能力,具体措施如下:
2.1 授课教师要转变观念在我国目前的教学体系
外语教学多半只在课堂上进行,教师起着绝对的主导作用。如果教师只把重点放在语法和词汇教学上,学生就不可能学会语言的实际运用,也无法获得跨文化交际的能力。因此,授课的教师必须要转变自己的观念,切实认识到文化冲突的危害性和培养学生跨文化交际能力的重要性。同时,教师还要加强学习,提高自身的综合文化素质,只有这样,才能全面把握英语文化知识教育的量与度,以及教学的具体步骤和方法,以达到预期的教学目的。
2.2 改进现有的教学方法一直以来
小学的英语教学侧重点都放在了语言知识的传授上,而忽略了跨文化交际能力的培养。为了改变这种情况,我们必须改进教学方法,在质和量两个方面对课堂教学中的文化教学加以控制,并充分利用现代化的教学手段来调动学生的学习积极性。此外还可以举办一些专题讲座,以满足学生的求知欲望,培养出具有较高跨文化交际能力的人才。但是值得注意的是,在改进教学方法时,一定要使新的内容与学生所学的语言知识紧密联系,并与语言交际实践紧密结合。
篇3
摘要:
美国华裔文学是美国主流文学的重要组成部分之一,当前美国华裔文学作品中,包含两种不同的发展趋势:一种趋势是美国华裔文学正在逐步实现中、美文化的融合,在传承中国传统文化的基础上,汲取现代美国文化的精髓,实现两种文化的兼容并蓄;另一种趋势是疏离中国传统文化,在进一步割裂传统文化的基础上,撇清自身和中国传统文化的关系。
关键词:
美国华裔文学;中国传统文化;差异性
美国华裔文学是华裔美国人创作出来的文学作品,在对美国华裔文学研究过程中,有两个主要的区域要进行定义和规范。首先,当前的所有美国华裔文学都是使用英文来进行创作的,而与中国传统文化有着更为紧密联系的华人文学则是使用汉语来创作的。因此,将美国华裔文学和华人文学同等定义是不对的,美国华裔文学和传统文化的隔离度是相对较高的;其次,美国华裔文学是那些已经有了美国国籍,抑或是在美国出生的华人的后裔创作的,从这个角度来看,创作美国华裔文学的人都已经在美国的生活环境下生活了很长时间。众所周知,美国是世界文化的大熔炉,这些美裔华人都受到了美国文化的深刻影响,这些人所创作的文化作品都和美国现代文化充分结合在了一起,从这个角度来看,美国华裔文学和美国文学的联系相比较于和中国传统文化的联系还要相对紧密一些。
一、美国华裔文学起源于中国传统文化
通过对相关文献资料的查询,可以发现,从美国华裔文学的发展历史来看,美国华裔文学在发展的初始阶段,出于自身的“根源”,对中国的传统文化十分痴迷,但是,随着美国华裔文学的发展,由于和美国现代文化的融合,逐步产生了对于中国传统文学的隔阂。[1]与此同时,随着全球化进程的推进,美国文化和中国文化也产生了融合。从“追根溯源”的角度分析,可以看出,美国华裔文学所“传承”的中国传统文化具有五千年光辉灿烂的中华文明的积淀。中国的传统文化是对中国五千年历史的道德观、价值观的总结,这些优秀的文化也是对中国人传统的思维方式以及生活习俗的总结归纳。因此,作为中华民族的后裔,对于这些优秀的传统文化,都有保持这些传统的历史责任感。因此,美国华裔文学作为中华炎黄子孙所创设的文化,也和中国的传统文化有着密切的联系,包含着中国传统文化和人文意识的传承,这也表明了,美国华裔文学创设的初始阶段,其和中国的传统文化有着割不断的历史文化渊源。在美国华裔文学发展的初始阶段,一些创作者大都是来自中国的“佼佼者”,这些人都有着十分深厚的理论知识功底。与此同时,这些人刚刚离开自己的国家,面对着和传统的中华文明有着隔阂的美国文化,这些人在最初的阶段都很不适应,他们心中的“传统文化”和“美国文化”有着一定的差距。在这样的背景下,这些优秀的作家都力求在保证自身传统文化的涵养下,尽可能地实现中国文化和美国文化的融合。例如:美国华裔文学的代表性人物黎锦扬在进行《花鼓歌》的创作过程中,就结合了自身的经历,以中国的传统文化为基础,在作品中成功地创作了美国华裔文学的典型形象—王老爷的儿子王三,这个人物就是中西文化结合的典型代表。在该作品中,主人公王三从自己小的时候便开始接受美国文化教育,在这样的生活发展背景下,主人公在13岁时已经完全融入美国社会。由于受到美国文化的影响,主人公几乎忘记了中国传统文化。但是,主人公的父亲还不想让主人公“忘根”,严格要求他学习中国传统文化。可想而知,主人公对于和自己生活“格格不入”的中国传统文化自然是丝毫不感兴趣,甚至对父亲抱怨说“对那些废话一窍不通”,其深深地反映了美国华裔文学对于融合中西文化的无力感,仅仅凭借个人的一腔热血,是无法在根源上解决两种文化之间的差异问题的。[2]随着时代的发展,美国华裔文学逐步地从初始阶段走向了转折阶段。在这一发展的历史时期,不得不提的问题就是“种族歧视”问题。美国华裔文学的创作者们开始对自己的身份产生迷茫,他们在这一阶段开始认为“中国传统文化”给他们的发展带来了限制,甚至想完全抛弃中国传统文化,以便于自身完全投入到美国社会的主流文化之中。这一文化现象也在这一历史阶段的美国华裔文学作品中得到印证。从这一段历史的发展来看,以汤婷婷和谭恩美为代表的新一代美国华裔文学作者,对于融入美国主流文化的意愿也越来越强烈。但是,随着民族意识的觉醒,美国华裔文学的创作者深刻感受到了“根”和“民族凝聚力”的作用,这些作者开始重新定位自身对于中国传统文化的理解。例如:在当代著名的美国华裔文学作品《喜福会》中,就传达出了新一代的创作者对于美国华裔文学的认知:不去逃避自己的文化起源,充分地融合自身的民族文化属性,并在结合美国文化的发展特点的基础上,让自己更好地和美国的主流文化进行融合。[3]在这种发展背景下,美国华裔文学逐渐进入发展的巅峰阶段,在这一阶段,世界上的各种文化实现了高度融合。与此同时,随着中国世界地位的提升,美国华裔文学作家对于自己的出身问题已经不再苦恼。美国华裔文学作家更能够利用诙谐、幽默、反讽的作品回应“歧视问题”。如《典型美国人》就从美国发展的历史阶段,更加强调中国传统文化和美国主流文化的融合。这一时期的作品对于美国华裔文学的发展也有着非常有效的促进作用。
二、美国华裔文学与中国传统文化的差异性
(一)美国华裔文学与中国传统文化差异性的具体表现
1.美国华裔文学存在对中国传统文化的误读
美国华裔文学作家的典型代表人物汤婷婷在进行《女勇士》的创作过程中,使用了美国式的视角,同时又受到了严重的“东方主义”思想的影响,在该作品中描绘的中国形象是文化腐朽,思想愚昧的。与此同时,在她的笔下中国还是“养闺女还不如喂只鸟”的中国,在这样的笔触下,这些美国华裔文学不仅仅对中国进行了诋毁,还对中国传统文化进行了抹黑。[5]与此同时,由于这些美国华裔文学是美国的华裔创作的,很容易让美国人错误认为这些美国华裔文学描述的就是真实的,对中国的形象造成了严重的诋毁。马胜美曾对于美国华裔文学评价道:“某些美国华裔文学作品,为了达到自己不可告人的目的,有意识地歪曲中国文化。”[6]极为带有偏见地诋毁中国的形象,为了充分地迎合美国白人的主流文化,从而导致中国传统文化和西方文化的隔阂。从这些美国华裔文学作品来看,中国的传统文化和美国华裔文学之间产生的隔阂是和某些带有偏见的美国华裔作家分不开的。
2.美国华裔文学的生存土壤不同于传统中国文化
从根源来分析,这种隔阂的产生是和这些美国华裔文学作家的生活状态分不开的。虽然他们有着中华民族的血统,但是,他们的上一辈就已经生活在美国社会,这些人从小就接受了美国文化的熏陶,所接受的教育也都是美式教育,这些人只是认识到了自己对于“美国人”这一名词的认同,对于自身的民族的历史也就忽略了。因此,这些人所创作的文学作品都只是他们片面的“道听途书”后所创作的,这些文化作品也往往会是“无根之萍”。如在知名美国华裔文学作家谭恩美的成名作《喜福会》中,就对这一文化的割裂情况进行了探索分析。在该小说之中,对四位华人移民母亲和她们的女儿之间的关系进行了研究分析,充分展现出了这些母女之间的关系:母亲虽然有着教育女儿“寻找中国文化渊源”的思想意识,但是,又希望自己的女儿能够充分地继续自己的“美国梦”,展现了这一代美国华裔在成长过程中的矛盾,从此也看出了美国人成长过程中所经历的矛盾之痛。
(二)美国华裔文学与中国传统文化差异根源因素探析
从美国华裔文学和中国传统文化产生的差异性角度来看,这一问题的产生有着较深的理论背景。以萨义德的“东方主义理论”为代表的理论,是进行美国华裔文学和传统文化差异研究的重要参考性理论。具体来说,这一理论是建立在“东方”与“西方”的本体论的基础上完成的[4],其所定义的中国传统文化和美国主流文化的关系,错误地认为美国文化应该处于“控制”东方文化的定位,从这一角度分析,彰显了美国文化统治世界文化的野心。也正是因为“东方主义理论”的影响,很多的美国华裔文学所创作出来的文学作品也展现出了对于中国传统文化的背离。美国华裔文学作者对于美国主流文化充满了向往,出现了摆脱“中国传统文化”的思想倾向。因此,这些美国华裔文学作者往往会在文学作品创作的过程中使用“美国式”的眼光来审查“中国传统文化”,从而使美国华裔文学和中国传统文化之间产生了隔阂。综合起来看,美国华裔文学在发展的历程中,由于受社会经济发展变迁的影响,在美国华裔文学的发展过程中和中国传统文化之间的存在差异,这些差异就导致了隔阂和问题的产生。但是,随着全球化进程的加快,文化融合进程也在加快,这也是美国华裔文学发展的未来趋势。
三、结语
综上所述,由于历史与现实等各种原因,各国文化之间产生差异性也是必然。但是随着全球化进程的加快,文化的融合也是必然趋势,人类社会的发展也是在这样的差异和融合之间发生的。中国传统文化和美国文化之间的关系,正逐步地从美国文化的“文化施动者”进行转变,进而在后续的发展过程中,产生更多的文化冲突以及融合。但是,随着时代的发展,文化之间的融合趋势也越来越明显,因此,美国华裔文学和中国传统文化之间的融合也是未来的发展趋势。
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[3]李贵苍.赵健秀的《杜老鸭》:在阳刚之气和文化英雄主义语境中探寻华裔的文化认同[J].华文文学,2006(3):41-52.
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篇4
关键词 筷子 叉子 文化差异
中图分类号:G122 文献标识码:A
1 群体认同与个人本位
从不同的餐桌文化看到了中国文化的思想内核是“群体意识”,而西方文化的思想内核则是“个体意识”。中国的社会结构以家庭为基础单元,中国人的社会存在首先依存于以血缘关系为纽带的家庭和宗族, 再延伸至家国社稷。人的社会关系表现为个人、家庭、国家融为一体,文化上兼收并蓄,价值观以国家集体利益为重,必要时不惜牺牲个人利益或局部利益,保护全体利益。“人之生不能无群,群而无分则争,争则乱,乱则穷矣。”中国人喜欢聚餐共食,在中国人心目中,“独食难肥,共食才能汲取营养;独食无味,共食才会其乐无穷。”目的是为了加强人情往来,群体联系。中餐桌上的热闹气氛与西餐的雅静形成了鲜明的反差。主人宴请客人往往为了表现热情好客,铺张排场,在餐桌上还频频给客人布菜夹菜。客人们一上桌,便滔滔不绝,谈天说地,劝酒敬烟,甚至吆喝划拳,现阶段的这种风潮有悖于传统儒家文化“食不语,寝不言”的教诲,已远超出文明的界限。
比较正式的宴席的座次安排, 也体现出这种不同的文化认同。传统的中餐宴席使用八仙桌,对门为上,两边为偏座。年长者、主宾或地位高的人坐上座,男女主人或陪客者坐下座,其余客人按顺序坐偏座。现代宴席,主要用圆桌及方桌, 但往往男性与女性分桌, 女性安排在次桌或次要座位。若家中请客,女主人往往在厨房和餐厅之间穿梭忙碌,待所有菜品上桌才就座陪客。而西餐宴会中, 主角是女主人,一般使用长形或马蹄形餐桌,男女主人分坐两端,然后按男女主宾和一般客人的次序安排座位,即男女穿插安排,以女主人的座位为准,主宾坐在女主人的右上方,主宾夫人坐在男主人的右上方,以右为尊,左为次。入座方式为从左侧入座,男士应拖拉餐椅,协助女士入座,以显示女士优先的绅士风度。若家庭宴请,男女主人都应始终陪同,客人还应送瓶葡萄酒或鲜花,或为女主人准备纪念品等小礼物,这也是社交场合的起码礼节。
2 面子观念
在西方社会中也有面子观念,Brown 和Levinson 于1978 年提出了“面子保全论”,指出礼貌就是“典型人”为满足面子需求所采取的各种理。他们将面子分为正面面(positive face)和负面面子(negative face)。正面面子是指每个社会成员希望自己的愿望受人顺从, 他的自我形象被人欣赏和赞许。夸赞对方就是西方人典型的生活习惯和交际方式,不管多么简单的菜肴,都会得到客人的赞美。如果每道菜都吃完,会令主人很高兴,说明自己的心意和努力得到客人的肯定。餐后告别,客人们总要表示“have a nice dinner”(吃得很高兴)。而负面面子是与正面相对而言,指的是社会成员希望其行动不被人干涉, 即具有行动自由和自主决定的自由, 凡是有违这种自由愿望的言行就会被认为对他人负面面子的侵犯。与之相应,在西方更受欢迎的还有自助餐和鸡尾酒会,形式更加自在随意,按照个人的喜好和食量自由选择,便于相互联络与交往。另外邀请他人外出用餐,往往是AA 制,各人付各自的帐,或平分账单,若为人付账需事先说明。
由于中国传统社会是以家族为核心的熟人社会,即人情社会,个人的价值取决于家族和他人的评价。在这种特定语境中,人们往往十分关注自己在他人心中的地位, 以寻求和捍卫自己的优势,保持体面和尊严。在家族和交际圈子中,人们习惯用面子来解释和调节社会关系和行为,谁的面子大,谁的话语权就大,在他人心目中的地位也高。因此人们热衷于请客和被请,谁的应酬多,宴请的档次高,客人的级别高,谁就“有面子”,在人际交往中,也乐于互相“给面子”。比如餐桌上几乎每宴必有的敬酒环节, 敬酒者和被敬者竞相表演的一套套说辞,言不由衷,醉翁之意不在酒,全在于面子。餐后争先付款买单,即使无意出钱,彼此心照不宣,也要做一番“争面子“的表现。
3 总结
有些时候不同的礼仪是不同文化之间产生误解, 导致跨文化交际失败的一个重要的原因, 而中西方文化的差异又是造成礼仪不同的主要原因。研究和理解深藏在礼仪背后的文化因素, 能使我们更好地把握交际的原则和习惯技巧。餐桌礼仪作为礼仪中的一种,是我们与西方人交往时难以避免的,因此,对餐桌礼仪的研究不能只分析东西方差异的表层,需要探索其背后的文化,这样才能做到“知其然,知其所以然”,以客观宽容的态度对待异国文化,减少因文化差异所造成的交际障碍,避免产生误解与冲突。
参考文献
篇5
关键词: 汉英文化差异 翻译策略 优化利用
一、汉英文化差异不容忽视
本文根据《现代汉语词典》中对“文化”一词的定义第一条,将“文化”定义为:文化是人类社会历史发展过程中所创造的物质财富和精神财富的总和。文化包含人类创造的一切财富,语言是人类最杰出的创造物之一。地理位置、社会制度、历史变革、思维方式等的不同,必然引起两个民族之间文化的差异,这种差异主要表现在社会习俗、行为方式及有情感的语言表达方式上,而语言作为文化的载体和不可分割的组成部分,必然会打上不同文化的烙印。汉语中有“三生有幸”“一尘不染”等反映佛教观念的词汇,“改革开放”“一国两制”等反映政策的词汇;英语中也有“Sword of Damocles”(达摩克利斯之剑)等反映历史的词汇。可见,翻译不仅是一种语言的交换,而且是一种文化的对接。文化的共性使这种对接成为可能,同时文化的个性决定其不可能完美。文化的个性形成文化差异的鸿沟,译者的使命就是架设跨越鸿沟的桥梁。[1]因而,如何优化自己的翻译策略便成了译者要面对的一个问题。
二、两种翻译策略及之间的关系
著名的文学家鲁迅先生就明确地提出了归化与异化的问题:“动笔之前,就先得解决一个问题,竭力使它归化,还是尽量保存洋气呢?”鲁迅这里的所谓“洋气”可以理解为我们所说的“异化”。所谓归化,就是主张译文应以源语或原文作者为归宿;异化,则是认为译文应以目的语或译文读者为归宿。[2]当然,关于归化与异化之争可谓古今中外皆源远流长。在中国,古有佛经翻译的“文质之争”,经过二十世纪二三十年代鲁迅与梁实秋之争,直到1987年刘英凯《归化――翻译的歧路》将两者之争推向;在国外,可追溯到古罗马时期Cicero,Horace和Jerome等人所论及的word-for-word translation(字译,即直译的雏形)和sense-for-sense translation(意译),十八至十九世纪德国著名翻译家Schleiermacher有一句名言:“译者要么尽量不打扰原作者而让读者靠近作者,要么尽量不打扰读者而让作者靠近读者。”[3]二十世纪七十年代,当文论和文学翻译领域出现文化转向时,归化和异化之争才正式取代直译和意译之争,逐渐成为当今翻译理论的热门话题之一。[4]无论是归化派还是异化派,他们都有关于翻译目的、文本类型、作者意图、读者接受等方面的考虑。随着时代的进步,世界文化交流的频繁,我认为读者们对异域知识的了解越来越多,寻求异域知识的好奇心也被不断刺激,各种异域的表达不断地被引进与接受,因而从长远角度来说异化是大势所趋,然而,归化与异化目前看来仍是一个辩证的统一体。没有完全归化的译文,也没有完全异化的译文。
三、归化与异化翻译策略的优化
上文提到,归化与异化是辩证统一的关系,但由于两种策略各有所长,如何优化翻译策略就变得极其重要,以下结合翻译实例来分析两种策略的优化利用。
例如:至于才子佳人等书……更有一种风雨笔墨……(曹雪芹,《红楼梦》)
As for books of the beauty-and-talented type ...Even worse are those writers of the breeze-and-moonlight school.(杨宪益、戴乃迭译)
And the “boudoir romance” ... Still worse is the “erotic novel” ...(David Hawkes)
从翻译的类型来看,原文中“风月”二字本意指风清月明,在诗词歌赋中常用以比喻男欢女爱,是一个极富中国文化韵味的词语,杨戴采用异化的翻译策略向读者传递出原文本的文化内涵。从这一点看,霍氏的归化译文略显单薄。通常情况下,以介绍源语文化为目的的哲学著作、历史、典故、民间故事等类型的翻译,异化策略用得较多,因为这类翻译的目的就是要把源语文化介绍给目的语的读者,使其体会、了解源语文化。而对于一些实用性文体的文章,如新闻报道、广告、宣传资料、通知等的翻译,一般可遵循以目的语文化为归宿,较多地采用归化策略,以达到通俗易懂、表达清晰的效果。如关于著名电影“Waterloo Bridge”的归化翻译《魂断蓝桥》运用得就恰到好处,译者翻译时避免了Waterloo(滑铁卢)给人以介绍战争的误导,而是联系影片的爱情主题,译成了有中国文化特色的“蓝桥”,使中国观众闻联想起典故,表达效果极佳。[5]从翻译的目的和读者的接受来看,杨氏采用异化策略将文化信息传达给读者,弘扬中国文化的同时希望对中国文化有一定基础的目的语人群能获得更多的文化知识,包括对“风月”这一意象的把握;而霍氏的译文显然更针对中国文化了解甚少的人群。我们可以此来考察“五四”期间异化翻译发挥的作用。鲁迅极主张“直译”、“硬译”、“宁信而不顺”,借助翻译来改造汉语、丰富汉语,使汉语更细致精密,更富有表现力,更具有逻辑性。异化翻译此时在很大程度上推动了白话文运动的发展,从而极大地推动了的发展。在这里,从不同的角度分析可见归化与异化的翻译策略各有千秋,如何使它们的作用在文章中得以优化则需要考虑以上因素,在全面分析后方可知晓。
四、结语
归化与异化的争执从未间断,学者的争执业已从语言层面上升至文化层面。目前看来二者是在处理文化差异时必须面对和采用的翻译策略,归化译文有较高的可读性,读者群较为庞大,读起来通顺易懂;异化译文可以尽可能多的传递文化信息,使读者体验异域表达与文化风味,它们各有所长,互相补充与完善。或许若干年后,在另一个较大的学术转向之后,我们可以站在更高的层面上审视这两种翻译策略,从更多的角度探讨二者的优化利用。
参考文献:
[1]陈宏薇,李亚丹主编.新编汉英翻译教程[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,2004:24.
[2]郭建中.翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].上海外国语大学学报,1998,(2).
[3]Schleiermacher,A.On the Different Method of Translation[A].Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essay from Dryden to Derrida[C].Schulte,R.,Biguenet,J.Chicago and London:The University of Chiago Press,1992:36-54.
篇6
民族之所以得以区分,不仅是受到地域的影响,还因为其发展历史与不同。民族的形成是十分自然的过程,一个民族的人,具有较为相似的心理素质以及心理趋向,无论是语言应用还是行为举止,都较为相似。而民族与民族之间,会在心理趋向与语言应用上存在不同之处,这也是各个民族具有自身的原因。在进行英汉翻译工作时,译者需要关注文化差异中的信仰问题,不同的信仰,对于同样的词汇具有不同的理解。比如,在中国,龙是权利的象征,是吉祥的象征。在中国,有许多词语与龙有关,用具有积极意义。像龙凤成祥,生龙活虎等。而在英语国家,“dragon”是邪恶与罪恶的象征。在了解中国文化的过程中,许多英美国家的无法理解中国人是龙的传人。在翻译时,我们可以将“dragon”转换为“tiger”,推动文化的正常交流。
二、风俗习惯差异,造成词汇的涵义不同
风俗习惯的不同,使人们对于同一词汇的使用方法不同。中国是一个崇尚儒家文化的国家,尊老爱幼是一个人的基本品德。在生活中,我们习惯有老奶奶、老爷爷、老太太这样的称呼,老字在中国意味着受人尊敬。而在英美国家则不同,在他们的观点中,“old”意味着他们没有价值了,没有生存的意义了。在进行英汉翻译时,需要对“old”进行合理转换,翻译为令以尊敬的即可。另外,在中国的日常交流中,人们经常会提出工作、年龄、收入、婚姻等问题,大家乐于谈论这些,来增加彼此之间的熟悉度。而在英美国国家,这些都属于个人隐私,如果你询问,就说明你没有礼貌。这就提醒我们每一位英汉翻译者,需要认识到英汉语言中所暗藏的思维与风俗问题,尊重不同国家之间的风俗习惯,将翻译工作做准做精。
三、地域环境差异,造成词汇的涵义不同
语言的含义也会受到地理环境的影响,不同的区域,在同一时刻会有不同的地理现象。同样的地理现象,其所带来的影响是不同的。这就使得关于地理或者天气的词语,会存在较大的差异。举例来讲,在中国,春天会吹东风,东风一来,春天则到,万物复苏,春暖花开。在我国,东风一直被应用于大量的诗句当中,诗人用描述东风来表达自己对春天的热爱之情。像“东风夜放花千树”等。
篇7
[Key Words] metaphor; translation; cultural differences; cultural connotations; corresponding relation
【摘 要】 近年来,越来越多的学者对隐喻进行了研究,在现代社会逐渐形成了一股“隐喻热”。对隐喻的研究在国外已形成较为完整的体系,其中以George Lakeoff 和Mark Johnson的研究最具有代表性。国内对隐喻的研究也主要受这两个人的影响。而纵观这些研究成果,我们不难发现,很少有对英语隐喻汉译的研究,而且大多数传统的理论家认为隐喻仅仅是一种修辞格,属于语言学的范畴。但是事实上,隐喻不仅是一种语言现象,也是一种文化现象、认知现象。本论文克服了这些局限,试图从中英文化差异的角度来研究英语隐喻的汉译。整篇论文分为五个部分。第一部分是导入。该部分立足于认为隐喻是一种文化和认知现象这一新观点,阐明了从文化角度对隐喻进行研究的意义。第二部分重点分析了语言、文化与翻译之间的密切关系。第三部分介绍了隐喻的一些要素,如隐喻的定义,特征及分类。第四部分根据不同的英汉对应关系,着重阐述了英语隐喻的汉译方法。最后一部分总结了此论文的一些要点。
【关键词】 隐喻;翻译;文化差异;文化内涵;对应关系
1. Introduction
On seeing the title of this thesis, the reader may easily find out three key words: translation, metaphor, and cultural differences. In the view of most people, metaphor belongs to the category of language, but as we know that language has very close connection with translation and culture. As Professor Wang Zuoliang, a master of translation, pointed out, translation involves language as well as culture.[1] Translation is not merely a task of replacing one language with another, but also needs to have a good command of the two different cultures represented by the two different languages. When we concentrate on translation studies, we should attach great importance to both language and culture.
Over the past two decades, translation studies have assumed a sound momentum of advancement, and culture, as an indispensable factor in translation, becomes increasingly important. Through thorough analysis, we can find that there are two tendencies in today’s development of translation studies: firstly, translation studies have been more and more integrated with communication theories; secondly, the focus of translation has been shifted from linguistic transfer to cultural transfer. Based on these two tendencies, many scholars engaged in translation studies agree with the idea that translation is an act of intercultural communication.
Since translation involves two languages and two cultures, and in different cultural backgrounds, there are different languages. Both Chinese and English are great peoples with long history and rich cultural resources, and naturally colorful languages. Metaphor, as a category of language, is a common linguistic phenomenon in both Chinese and English, but metaphors in these two different cultural backgrounds have great differences.
Metaphor doesn’t exist on the birth of human. With the advancement of human civilization, the linguistic competence of our ancestors had been greatly strengthened. They gradually acquired the capability to express their ideas through association. In this way, metaphor——one of the most important means of expression in human language came into being. As the foundation of mankind’s conceptual system, metaphor is the common feature of human language. If there is no metaphor in our language, it will be very hard for us to clearly and vividly express our ideas, let along smooth and successful communication.[2] Traditional theorists viewed metaphor simply as an important stylistic device of the poetic imagination and rhetorical flourish, moreover a matter of words rather than thought or action, but in fact, “metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but also in thought and action.”[3] Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. Just as I.A.Richards contends, “all language and thought are metaphorical, and metaphor is the ‘omnipresent principle of language’.”[4]
From the importance of metaphor, we can see that translation of metaphor has great significance to the cultural translation. Peter Newmark has stated in Approaches to Translation that metaphor is at the center of all problems of translation theory, semantics and linguistics.[5] Especially in English, there are a great number of metaphors. It had been said that three-quarters of the English language consists of metaphors. In order to master English and successfully complete the task of translation from English into Chinese, successful translation of English metaphor is essential. Therefore, in this paper, the author attempts to discuss the problem of translation of metaphor from English into Chinese from the cultural perspective in detail.
As far as translation theory is concerned, this paper adopts Eugene A.Nida’s functional theory, i.e. “Functional Equivalence”: the response of the receptors to the translated message=the response of the original receptors to the message when it was given in its original setting.[6]From this point, we know that for truly successful translation, biculturalism is as important as bilingualism, and even more important at times.
2. Culture and translation
2.1 Culture
“What is culture?” is a very difficult question, because culture is such a complex conception and an enormous subject that it is extremely hard for people to give an exact definition to it. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture was formulated by the English anthropologist Sir Edward Burnett Tylor in Primitive Cultures (1871). “He defined culture as ‘a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’.”[7]
Although culture is very complicated, we can roughly classify it into three categories in scope: (a) material culture which refers to all the products of manufacture;(b) instituted culture which refers to social system, religious system, ritual system, educated system and kinship system etc;(c) mental culture which refers to people’s mentalities and behaviors, their beliefs, perceptions, concepts of value, thought patterns etc,
In the view of most anthropologists, culture possesses the following features: (a) culture is socially acquired instead of biologically transmitted; (b) culture is shared among the members of a community instead of being unique to an inpidual; (c) culture is symbolic. Language is the most typical symbolic system within culture; (d) culture is integrated. Each aspect of culture is tied in with the other aspects.[8]
Since language symbolizes and reflects culture, language communication is actually a kind of cultural communication and the communication between different languages is indeed communication between different cultures. From this perspective, the translation of language is essentially the translation of culture, and translation studies should be conducted in the context of culture. In the next section, the author is going to discuss the interrelations between language, culture and translation.
2.2 Language, culture and translation
Nobody will suspect the close interrelations between language and culture. A language may be a small but indispensable part of a culture. The relation between language and culture is mutually cause and effect. They penetrate into each other and cannot exist without each other. Culture embraces and influences language. In the process of communication, the meaning of language is usually determined by its cultural context. On the other side, language is the important constituent of culture and it is also an essential tool for the reservation, communication and reflection of culture. [9] In a sense, language carries culture, mirrors culture, spreads culture and helps develop culture. It is no exaggeration to say that language is the life blood of culture and culture is the track along which language forms and develops.
Just because of the close relation between language and culture, we have to pay attention to the cultural context when we research into language. According to linguistics, the origin of human language is always connected with the origin of human and human society. Therefore, if we need to understand certain language and the laws of its development, we must closely relate it to the history of social development of this language and to the people using it and its history. The existence of culture cannot depart with its certain cultural context.[10]
As for the relation between culture and translation, the author has mentioned above. Translation is, in essence, an act of intercultural communication, and the translation of language is the translation of culture. Nida holds that both language and culture are symbolic systems, and translation is the interaction between these two systems. Thus, in translation we should not only focus on the literal meaning of words or sentences, but also pay special attention to their cultural connotations in certain cultural context. Therefore, translation studies at least contain two types: in narrow sense it is literal translation, which aims at turning the content in one language into another; in broad sense it is cultural translation, which explores in turning the cultural connotation in one language into another cultural form.[11]
So far as now, the author has illustrated the intimate interrelations between language, culture and translation. And among the relations between inpidual constituent of linguistic system and social development, the most direct one is lexicon. It is because that lexicon is most sensitive to the development of society. And metaphor, as the minor system of lexicon,is most deeply affected by social culture. As discussed in Introduction, metaphor is the common feature of human language and the foundation of mankind’s conceptual system. So when we do translation studies, metaphor is necessarily enlisted in our consideration. Although metaphor differs greatly, the acceptance of metaphor from an alien culture is possible, because human beings all live in the Earth, and they share more or less similar living environment and similar feelings and sentiments. However, the acceptance of metaphor is usually incomplete, because it is limited by the persity of culture. As we know, different nations have different culture, and in different cultural context, metaphor is surely different. What’s more thinking itself is metaphorical and metaphorical concepts constitute people’s values and thought patterns. Therefore, how to deal with metaphor in translation is a pragmatic problem in translation studies. In the following chapter, the author is going to first introduce metaphor thoroughly.
3. Metaphor
3.1 Definition of metaphor
“The word ‘metaphor’ derives from the Greek word ‘metaphora’, which means ‘transference, carrying over’. It is a very common figure of speech in English.”[12] Metaphor, whose basic constituents are tenor, vehicle and ground, uses words to indicate something different from their literal meaning-----one thing is described in terms of another so as to suggest a likeness or analogy between them.
On the definition of metaphor, different scholars and academic works give their different opinions. Next the author is going to list some of them:
(a) A figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another. (Webster’s New World Dictionary)[13]
(b) A figure of speech in which one thing is described in terms of another. The basic figure in poetry. A comparison is usually implicit; whereas in simile it is explicit. (A Dictionary of Literal Terms)[14]
(c) The use of one reference to a group of things that are related in a particular way in order to discover a similar relation in another group. (I.A.Richards, 1936: 89-90, The Philosophy of Rhetoric)[15]
(d)The figure of speech in which a name or descriptive term is transferred to some object different from, but analogous to, that to which it is properly applicable; an instance of this, a metaphorical expression. (Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition, 2002)
(e) A Textbook of Translation (Peter Newmark, 1988:104) defines metaphor as follows: “By metaphor, I mean any figurative expression: the transferred sense of a physical word; the personification of an abstraction; the application of a word or collocation to what it does not literally denote, i.e., to describe one thing in terms of another. All polysemous words (a ‘heavy’ heart) and most English phrasal verbs are potentially metaphorical. Metaphors may be ‘single’-viz. one- word——or ‘extended’ (a collocation, an idiom, a sentence, a proverb, an allegory, a complete imaginative text)”[16]
(f)A figure of speech in which a word or phrase that ordinarily designates one thing is used to designate another, thus making an implicit comparison, as in “a sea of troubles” or “ All the world’s a stage”(Shakespeare) (The American Heritage of the English Language, Fourth Edition,2000)[17]
(g)A figure of speech in which a term or phrase is applied to something to which it is not literally applicable in order to suggest a resemblance, as in “A mighty fortress in our God”. (Random House Compact Unabridged Dictionary, Special Second Edition, 1996)[18]
Each of the above-quoted definitions points out more or less the essence of metaphor. The common feature of these definitions is that all of them think that metaphor is a figure of speech, containing an implicit comparison. Among the seven definitions of metaphor, the first is very concise; the second makes a contrast between simile and metaphor to point out the fundamental difference between these two rhetorical devices; the third points out that in metaphor, the tenor and the vehicle are related through their similarity in a particular way; the fourth is abstract for it provides no concrete examples to help the reader better understand the notion it intends to convey; the fifth seems to be the most comprehensive and the most specific of the above-quoted definitions as it includes several ways of manifestations which all belong to metaphor; the sixth is somewhat clear with two examples provided; the last one is quite similar with the first one.
But this thesis is mainly based on the view of George Lakeoff and Mark Johnson. “They claim in Metaphors We Live by, ‘…… metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action.’ They point out, ‘Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.’”[19] This point of view is very consistent with I.A.Richards’ “metaphor is omnipresent principle of language” mentioned in Introduction.
3.2 Characteristics of metaphor
From the seven definitions on metaphor above and according to our knowledge of metaphor, we may conclude that metaphor possesses at least the following four characteristics:
(a) Unlike simile, metaphor doesn’t contain such linking words as “as” and “like”, so the comparison is implicit rather than explicit.
(b) In a metaphor, the tenor is compared to the vehicle because they share an abstract quality, which functions as a tie connecting the two together. In other words, the tenor and the vehicle possess a similar abstract feature or quality, which serves as the basis of their comparison.
(c) The tenor and vehicle are by nature different from each other, though they possess something abstract in common on which their comparison is based.
(d) The vehicle in a metaphor creates a specific image, which is usually vivid and impressive. By comparing the tenor to the vehicle, we not only get a concrete image of the tenor but also make its typical quality or feature stand out.
To sum up, the author would rather believe that metaphor is not just a matter of language, a figure of speech, which implies a resemblance between one object and another, but a cognitive mode from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, which helps people understand the world.
So far as now, this thesis has thoroughly illustrated some major factors of metaphor. In the next part, the author will pay special attention to discuss the translation of metaphor from English to Chinese from the perspective of cultural differences between Chinese and English.
4. Translation of metaphor from English into Chinese from the perspective of cultural differences between Chinese and English
4.1 Cultural translation of metaphor
As we have discussed above, metaphor is not only a matter of words, but also a kind of cognitive mode. Thus, it is not enough to explore the translatability of metaphor only from the perspective of linguistics, but also from other perspectives. “Culture is the most important one of them in that in metaphors, the semantic ingredients restricted by context can stimulate readers to associate others, especially certain major definitional ones, which can shape an image in readers’ mind, then make the imparted information more clear and vivid.”[20] While image and culture are closely linked. Therefore, it is necessary for us to discuss the translatability of metaphor from the cultural perspective.
Whether a metaphor is “translatable” (i.e. whether literal translation could create identical dimensions), how difficult it is to translate, how it can be translated and whether it should be translated at all cannot be decided by a set of abstract rules, but must depend on the structure and function of the particular metaphor within the text concerned. The translatability of any given source language metaphor depends on two factors: one is particular cultural experiences and semantic association exploited by it; the other is the extent to which these can, or cannot, be reproduced non-anomalously in target language, depending on the degree of “overlap” in each particular case. Let’s look at an example:
(1) “Don’t be scared, chickens!” came her voice with teasing gaiety.
“别害怕,你们这些胆小如鼠的东西!”只听得她用戏谑的口气说道。
In this example, “chickens” should not be literally translated into “小鸡” in Chinese, because in western culture, “chicken” is often used to refer to a cowardly and fearful person. Thus, “胆小如鼠” is a better translation.
4.1.1 Management of cultural factors in translating English metaphors
English metaphors contain abundant and vivid cultural connotation of the nation and strongly reflect the cultural characteristics of the nation with English as its native language. The key of successful translation of English metaphors lies in the extent to which the translator understands the cultural context and the translation of the cultural features. Thus, the translator should try to master the source and cultural context of English metaphors as much as possible, which is very necessary to exactly understand their connotations and the cultural characteristics they reflect. Then the translator can use proper methods to translate these connotations and characteristics in order to achieve the most faithful and perfect translation.
As to translation standard and approach, in foreign countries, there are Nida’s “formal correspondence” and “functional equivalence”, and C.F.Newmark’s “semantic translation” and “communicational translation”; in China, there exists “direct translation” and “indirect translation”. Although they are different standards, all of them do not conflict with each other but complement with each other. Therefore, there are many approaches to translating metaphors. While in the process of translating metaphors, which approach is the best choice? It will depend on the nature and position of metaphors in text, on the relation between metaphor and context and on the type of the text itself.
Above all, during the process of translation of metaphors, the translator should try to flexibly keep the cultural features while translating meaning. As a result of cultural similarities and differences, the target language and the source language have different corresponding relations: sometimes full-corresponding, sometimes semi-corresponding, and sometimes non-corresponding. Such a phenomenon will further affect the accuracy of translation. In fact, any translation may bring about the loss of meaning and/or image. Therefore, we should adopt different complemental methods in order to achieve what Nida called “functional equivalence”.[21]
4.1.2 Cultural connotation of metaphor
“Both Nida and Newmark classify linguistic culture into five categories:(a) ecology (b) material culture (c) social culture (d) religious culture (e) linguistic culture.”[22] It clearly tells us that: cultural information carried by all kinds of languages is certain to be different, because the ecology, material, social and religious environment which different nations own are impossible to be identical. The cultural differences directly influence the thinking mode and value orientation of human being, thus become the main reason for the differences of metaphorical concepts of the two nations. Through researches on metaphors, we can find the cultural differences between Chinese and English.
Firstly, metaphors reflect geological and natural conditions of a nation. Different nations have different geological environment and national circumstances, and this difference often finds expression in metaphors. For example (2), when describing the emergence of a large amount of new objects, Chinese always say “雨后春笋般地”, while in English people usually say “grow like mushrooms” (像蘑菇一般). From this example, we can find that for the same phenomenon, Chinese and English use different images to describe. The reason just lies in the different environment of the two nations:China abounds with bamboo shoots, while the English speaking countries with mushrooms.
Different climates also play a very important role in the use of metaphor. In the eye of Chinese, summer is an uncomfortable season when the blazing sun bakes the earth all the time but sometimes it suddenly rains heavily without any notice. So when seeing the metaphor “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? Thou are more lovely and more temperate.” in Shakespeare’s 18th sonnet to praise his friend, most Chinese may feel confused. It is very hard for us to connect the summer with a good friend. At this time, we need to make researches on the climate of Britain. Britain lies in the Northern temperate zone and is near to the Atlantic Ocean, so it has an oceanic climate and its summer is warm but never hot. In the mind of English, the summer is the most pleasant season to live in, which forms sharp contrast with the continental climate decided by the location of China.[23] Therefore, there is no doubt that the same wind triggers different associations in Chinese and English.
Besides climate, terrain and species of animals and plants, distribution of mineral deposits is an important factor for us to consider in terms of geological conditions. The ancient poem “问君能有几多愁,恰似一江春水向东流” reflects China’s terrain is high in the west and low in the east; and the English idiom “carry coals to Newcastle” (近乎做徒劳无功的事) arises from the background that Newcastle is an industrial city in England’s northeast, famous for coal exportation.[24]
Secondly, metaphors reflect traditional culture and values. People in different nations have different ways of life, thinking, culture and mentalities. As shown above, metaphor and culture have close relations. Through metaphor, people can well understand the objective world. And metaphor, to some extent, reflects and determines the shaping of a nation’s culture and values. It is because that when people make metaphors on certain images, their views of culture and values must be manifested in these metaphors consciously or unconsciously. For example, in Chinese culture the pine, the bamboo and the plum are called three gentlemen in winter. Because the three of them can survive the extremely cold winter and remain vital. For Chinese, they represent a noble spirit. While in English culture, they are just three common plants and cannot give people any association.
People in Chinese and English culture have different understanding of color. For example (3), “red” is the kind of color Chinese admire and has the meaning of luck, success, faithfulness and wealth, etc. This phenomenon can be explained from the angle of culture. In Chinese culture, Chinese special admiration for red originates from people’s worship and desire for the sun in ancient times. And our forebears’ attachment for the red sunshine is native. Therefore the positive meaning represented by red naturally comes into being. For example, in ancient times, the house, the clothes, and the carts the influential officials lived in , wore and sat in were respectively called “朱门”, “朱衣”, “朱轩”.In modern times, people use “分红” to refer to the profits distributed to the business cooperators. On the contrary, in English culture, red is a negative word. Because red is also the color of blood, and in the mind of English, blood is the liquid of life, once one bleeds, the flower of life will soon wither. Therefore, they often associate “red” with “violence” and “danger”. Then there are “the red rules of tooth and claw”, “red revenge”, “a red battle”, “red hand” etc.[25] All of these expressions show that red is a kind of unlucky color in English culture.
Besides, because of traditional cultural differences, metaphors on love in Chinese and English are entirely different. For example (4), in both Chinese and English, there is a metaphorical concept——“Love is a journey”(爱情是旅程). Then English say “we cannot turn back now”; in Chinese, there is a similar expression: “我们再也回不去了”《十八春》(张爱玲). However, the connotations of these two expressions are completely opposite. In the former, love is compared to journey metaphorically, which means that lovers must overcome the difficulties in the love journey together, otherwise they cannot maintain their love. What the expression emphasizes is the determination that lovers strive shoulder by shoulder. While in the latter, the expression implies the speaker’s confusion. Though the lovers regret for their departing love, they cannot go back like before any more.[26]
Thirdly, some metaphors have historical and cultural backgrounds. In both Chinese and English, there are many expressions implying rich historical and cultural backgrounds and produce various associations. For example (5), in Chinese, we say “说曹操,曹操就到”, “暗渡陈仓”, “东施效颦”, “卧薪尝胆”, “负荆请罪”, “四面楚歌”. Each of these allusions and idioms contains a great deal of historical and cultural information. While English say “meet one’s Waterloo” (惨遭失败), “ That’s all Greek to me” (一窍不通). The story of “meet one’s Waterloo” can be tracked back to June8, 1815, when the allied forces of Britain and Germany crushed Napolean’s troops in Waterloo, south of Belgium. Later, this expression can be used to describe any situation when one encounters a total defeat.
English historical allusions mostly originated from Greek myth. For example (6), as long as we say “银河”, “天河”, we will associate the folk story about that the Altair and the Vega meet on over this gutter. While English will call “the milky way”, which comes from the Greek myth. It refers to both the road formed by the dripping milk when Queen Hera fed Hercules, a warrior with great strength, and a milky road from the human world into the palace in the universe.[27]
Fourthly, metaphors give expression to people’s way of living. Researches on the connotative meanings of animals in Chinese and English cultures also reveal the impact of metaphor on people’s living. For example (7), in Chinese, we often encounter such expressions like “像老黄牛一样干活”, “气壮如牛”, “鞭打快牛” etc. While if expressing the same meaning, English will say “work like a horse”, “as strong as a horse”, “flog a willing horse”. Why Chinese and English use two different images? It is because that usually Chinese use cattle to plow, while English horses. Cattle and horses respectively become the good helper of Chinese and English in farming, so there are usages about them above.[28] And since horses in ancient China are mainly used for riding and war, the associative meaning of horse in Chinese is that it can be ridden and it runs fast, which gives rise to the expression like “马上”, “马到成功” and “一马当先”.
Fifthly, metaphors reflect people’s religious beliefs. Religion is an important source of metaphorical expression. As Christianity is the main spiritual support of westerners and is critical for the formation of English culture, it has penetrated every aspect of English social life, including the English language. And it is manifested most obviously in English metaphors. In fact, “most English metaphors come from religious beliefs and fairy stories. Many characters and events of the Bible make up a large part of English words with unique connotations, and many images of this kind are widely used in metaphors.”[29]
e.g. (8) The two-party system is the apple of the capitalists’ eye, so far as maintaining their political control of the workers is concerned.
就资产阶级维护对于工人的政治控制而言,两党制是资本家的宝贝。
In this sentence, the metaphor “the apple of the eye” (掌上明珠) comes from The Old Testament of the Bible, “He kept him as the apple of his eye.”(保护他如同保护眼中的瞳人). In ancient times, people noticed that pupil in eyes was just like an apple, so they called pupil as “apple of the eye”. As pupil is a very precious part in human body, “apple of the eye” is also used to refer to the person or thing most liked.
Besides, expressions, such as Noah’s Ark, olive branch, Paradise, Forbidden fruit, Adam’s apple and a Juda, also have rich metaphorical meanings.
Instead of Christianity, most of Chinese people believe in Confucianism and Taoism. Like those in English, expressions related to Chinese religious beliefs find their way to metaphors such as “临时抱佛脚”, “道高一尺,魔高一丈”, “放下屠刀,立地成佛”, “做一天和尚,撞一天钟”, “不看僧面看佛面” and “借花献佛”. After repeated use, the metaphorical meanings of these expressions have already overstepped their literal meaning as religious words.
4.2 Corresponding relations and approaches to the translation of English metaphors
As we know, every nation has its own unique social and cultural backgrounds. There exists great cultural differences between nations, especially in modern times, thanks to the development of advanced and convenient means of communication and transportation, the inter-cultural communication becomes more and more frequent. Meanwhile, because people in different nations must have some similar experience to some extent, the cultural overlap cannot be avoided under this condition.[30]
As shown above, language, especially metaphor has close relation with culture. Metaphor widely exists in both Chinese and English, and typically represents the rich and unique culture of each nation, while the fact that different nations often have different ways of making metaphors poses problems for translators. In the last section, also the most important section, based on a large number of convincing examples and from the angle of cultural analysis, the author is going to discuss the corresponding relations between Chinese and English metaphors, and offer several approaches to the translation of metaphor from English into Chinese.
(i) Full- corresponding relation
So-called full-corresponding is, in fact, such a kind of relation that the object and the image of a metaphor are fully corresponding in Chinese and English. The reason why there is full-corresponding relation in Chinese and English is the cultural overlap we have mentioned above. Although different countries have different cultures, traditions and ways of thinking, we still have a lot in common in using metaphor, because we human beings live in the same material world. As mammals, human beings’ basic living necessities and activities, regardless of their races, are fundamentally the same, or tend to be the same. People from different cultures also share much identical understanding of the nature. Our living environment, such as ecological environment and climate change, as well as our own bodies provide us with the possibility to have same understanding of the outside world and ourselves. At the same time, the common cognitive experience enables people to have basically same mentality to accept metaphors that are fresh to them.[31]
Under the condition of full-corresponding relation, there are two approaches to the translation of this kind of metaphor:
(a) Literal translation-----reproducing the same image in the target language provided that the image has comparable frequency and currency in the appropriate register. That’s to say, through literal translation, the image in source language is entirely retained and the information and effect brought about by the image also can be achieved in target language. “The advantage of literal translation is to enable the readers of the target language to be exposed to and gradually accept the cultural feature of the source language.”[32] For the translation of one-word metaphors, this approach is most useful.
e.g. (9) a ray of hope 一线希望
(10) Chain reaction 连锁反应
(11) the white terror
(12) cold winds
冷言冷语
While for the complex metaphors with a high degree of cultural overlap, this approach is also feasible.
e.g. (13) to go through fire and water 赴汤蹈火
(14) to head a wolf into the house 引狼入室
(15) to give somebody green light 给某人开绿灯
Also some sentences with metaphors are translated by this approach.
e.g. (16) Life is a journey .人生是一种旅途。
(17) All the world’s a stage. (Shakespeare) 整个世界是个舞台。
(18) The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants. It is its natural manure.
自由之树须常以爱国志士和暴君的血来浇灌,这些鲜血是自由之树的天然肥料
(b)Translation of metaphor by simile, retaining the image. As a matter of fact, metaphor is condensed simile. Aristotle believed that simile derives from metaphor and pointed out that simile is a kind of metaphor. They are identical in essence. This approach can be used when target language is not emotive in character. Under this condition, this way can modify the shock of a metaphor.
e.g. (19) a thunder of applause 雷鸣般的掌声
(20) a lion at home, a mouse abroad 在家如狮,在外如鼠
(21) Love and cough cannot be hid. 爱情像咳嗽一样是掩盖不了的。
(22) A good surgeon must have an eagle’s eye, a lion’s heart and a lady’s hand.[33]
好的外科医生必须有像鹰般的视力,狮子般的胆量和仕女般的巧手。
The contents above are about the approach to the translation of metaphor under the condition of full-corresponding relation. However, cultural overlap doesn’t often occur. In most cases, due to the differences in history, geological conditions, ways of life, traditions and habits, English and Chinese people don’t always have identical thinking, understanding, views and opinions on the same object. Therefore, not many full-corresponding relations can be found, and more metaphors in Chinese and English have semi-corresponding and non-corresponding relations.
(ii) Semi-corresponding relation [39]
In both Chinese and English, we often come across that different words are used for the same metaphorical meaning and many metaphors have the same metaphorical meaning but different literal meaning (images are different). “Metaphors of this kind only partly convey the corresponding cultural features of their equivalents, so the relations of these metaphorical equivalents are called semi-corresponding relations.”[34] The reason why semi-corresponding relations happen is because people from different cultures have different associations of the same or different images. In view of this, there are two approaches to translation of metaphor of this kind.
(a) Substitution of the image in source language with a standard target language image.[35] When the image in source language cannot convey the real meaning in target language, even clashes with target language culture, this approach is adaptable. At this time, we should try to understand both the superficial structure and the deep connotation of the metaphor in source language at first, and then fully display them by a proper image in target language that has similar metaphorical meaning.
e.g.(23) birds of a feather 一丘之貉
(24) lame duck 落选的议员
(25) swan song 最后的言行;最后的作品
(26) Better be the head of a dog than the tail of a lion. 宁为鸡头, 勿为牛后
(27) Every life has its roses and thorns. 人生有苦有乐
(28) Money makes the mare go. 有钱能使鬼推磨
(b) Reproducing metaphor with simile (or metaphor) plus sense or note.[36] As a result of social and cultural factors, sometimes in translation of metaphor from English into Chinese, although the image in source language is retained, it is still hard for Chinese readers to understand because the image is of obvious cultural features of English nation or implies certain historical events or character allusions. Meanwhile, in translating some English metaphors, whose connotations may be lost if through direct translation, we cannot find equivalents in Chinese. For metaphors of this type, especially for a number of names of people and places with cultural connotations, we usually adopt this approach to translation.
e.g. (29) The plan, which seems so promising, turned out to be a Pandora’s box.
看起来如此有希望的计划, 结果却是一个带来不幸的潘多拉盒子。
(30)The die is cast. 骰子一出, 大局已定。
(31 ) A little pot is soon hot. 壶小易热, 量小易怒。
(iii) Non- corresponding relation
As Chinese and English have their own unique culture, many metaphorical concepts only exist in either Chinese or English. In addition, there are metaphors that may have similar literal meanings, but their metaphorical meanings are totally different.[37] Metaphors of this kind have non-corresponding relations and we should adopt the following two approaches to the translation of these metaphors:
(a) Conversion of metaphor to sense. For certain metaphors, the degree of correspondence between source language and target language is very low. Under this condition, we should take connotation as the first and image as the second. That’s to say, in translation of metaphors, sometimes we have to change the image in source language in order to correctly express the connotations. Under this condition, the approach of conversion of metaphor to sense can be applied.
e.g. (32) the heel of Achilles 致命的弱点
(33) Love me, love my dog. 爱屋及乌
(34) Homer sometimes nods. 智者千虑,必有一失
(35) I supported him from the egg to the apples though he once told me off.
虽然他曾责备过我,但是我自始至终支持他。
(b) Deletion. Just from the literal meaning of “deletion”, we know that through this approach, the metaphor is deleted in translation. If a metaphor can find no metaphorical equivalent in Chinese, and after a thorough analysis of the text, we find it is redundant and its function has been fulfilled in other parts of the text, we can choose to directly delete it. Through this approach, the original aesthetic value may be lost and the force of infection in source language may be lessened. Of course, sometimes it is inevitable. But the translation can complement the loss brought about by deletion of images through other means. The four-word idioms in Chinese often can play this role.[38]
e.g. (36) The ship is plowing the sea. 船在乘风破浪。
(37) By the winter of 1942 their resistance to the Nazi terror had become only a shadow. (Winston Churchill)
到了1942年冬季,他们对于纳粹恐怖统治的抵抗已经名存实亡了。
(38) I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a desert state sweltering with the heat of injustice and oppression will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. (Martin Luther King, Jr. I Have a Dream)
我有一个梦想,有一天,甚至那倍受屈辱和迫害的凄凉的密西西比州,也将改造成自由与公正的绿洲。
In example (38), the Mississippi is compared to a desert which forms a sharp contrast with oasis. However, in the translation, the desert is not translated, but replaced by “凄凉的” to express the speaker’s intention. In doing so, the translation can avoid misunderstanding that Mississippi is a real desert state. 5. Conclusion
Based on the belief that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but also a cognitive mode, the main idea of the thesis is to talk about the translation of metaphors from English into Chinese from the perspective of cultural differences between Chinese and English. For this purpose, the body of this thesis is pided into three parts. The first part, the author mainly analyzes the interrelation between language, culture and translation. The second part introduces some major factors related to metaphor, including definition, characteristics and classification. The third part, also the most important part of this thesis, thoroughly illustrates the translation of metaphors from English into Chinese from the perspective of cultural differences, including cultural connotation of metaphors and approaches to translation of English metaphors in terms of the corresponding relations.
As metaphor has rich cultural connotations, in order to achieve successful translation of English metaphors, a translator should cultivate and continually enhance his own cultural awareness. This requires a translator to have both bilingual competence and bicultural or even multi-cultural knowledge in order to adapt to effective communication in different cultural context. The author hopes the six approaches to translation of English metaphors will be helpful. They are: literal translation, reproducing the same image in the target language; translation of metaphor by simile, retaining the image; substitution of the image in the source language with a standard target language image; reproducing metaphor with simile (or metaphor) plus sense or note; conversion of metaphor to sense; and deletion.
Of course, there must be many improper places and immature views in this thesis. The author sincerely wishes for inpidual reader’s criticism and correction.
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篇8
【关键词】英汉植物习语;喻义;文化差异
一、引言
习语是语言的精华,是人类智慧的结晶,具有浓厚的地方和民族色彩,习语来源于生活,是人们在劳动过程中创造的,蕴含着大量的文化信息。从与植物相关的英汉习语可以反映出民族特征,反映出该民族的生活习惯,思维方式,反映出民族的历史和文化背景。
由于英汉文化的差异较大,再加上植物分布的情况不一样,英汉植物喻词的意义异多同少。根据2002年何善芬对陆谷孙的《英汉大词典》和罗竹风的《汉语大词典》中所列的植物喻词的统计,英汉常见的植物词有495个,英语有172个,而汉语只有44个。
在跨文化交流中,植物词作为一种符号系统在英汉两种语言里具有不同的用途及文化价值、文化意蕴,这就要求人们要了解使用该语言国家的文化传统、价值观念、风土人情,并把握和细究植物词语的意义以及它所承载的文化信息,从而有效地进行跨文化的言语交际。
二、英汉习语中植物词的喻义对比
在英汉文学史上都有志士仁人以花卉草木为题,寄托情志、抒思的千古传诵的不朽名篇。本部分主要探讨英汉习语中植物词喻义的相同之处和不同之处。
1. 英语中有而汉语中无的植物
苹果(apple)是人们喜爱的最为常见的水果,英语中其喻义特别丰富。在美国棒球运动特别流行和普及,因而人们用最普通的苹果喻指棒球运动。如:He likes to play apple.(他喜欢打棒球)。苹果又常用来俗称“同伴、家伙”。如:He is a real slick apple.(他真是个狡诈的家伙)。苹果还可以喻指“炸弹”、“讨好巴结的人或行为”等(何善芬,2003:171)。而在汉语中苹果据说是张骞出使西域时带回的,它在汉语中仅指水果而已,没有什么特殊的喻义。
2. 汉语中有而英语中无的植物词
竹(bamboo),中空有节,具有挺拔坚硬的特性,因此,我国古今的人们常将竹赞誉为:不刚不柔,质朴无华;高节虚心,亭亭正直生。竹子的“空心”代表谦逊,它的瘦削和常青代表坚韧不拔和年迈高龄。竹节常暗示做学问更上一层楼。中国人喜欢种竹、赏竹、咏竹,竹文化相当发达。竹还象征永恒的青春和不可征服的力量,人们用“雨后春笋”来形容新生事物的大量出现,英美人则说spring up like mushrooms,因为英国没有竹,甚至连英语中的bamboo一词也是外来语,所以英语里是没有用竹子作喻体的。
3. 英汉中喻义相同的植物词
玫瑰(rose)在英汉语言中都用来比喻美好和爱情。例如:roses all the way(诸事顺利,一帆风顺),这个表达据说是来源于英国诗人Robert Browning写过的一首诗:It was roses,roses all the way. 诗句中常出现玫瑰的倩影,如:著名诗人Robert Burns曾借玫瑰来歌颂爱情:O,my love is like a red,red rose. 杜牧在诗句中称玫瑰为“朵朵精神叶叶柔,雨晴香拂醉人头”。
4. 英汉中喻义不同的植物词
柳树(willow)早春发芽,在汉文化中常用柳树喻指春天的来临和春光明媚,《诗经》有云:“昔我往矣,杨柳依依,今我来思,雨雪霏霏”。柳枝还是朋友分离时候的信物,一种离别之情的寄托。而在西方文化中,英语willow比喻失落、死亡,有戴柳叶花圈以悼死者的习俗,所以to wear the willow为“痛哭心爱的人,思念亲人”之意。
三、英汉植物习语喻义体现的文化差异
习语之所以最能鲜明地反映一个民族的文化特点是和这种历史文化的沉积分不开的。因此,考察习语可以看到英汉文化的特定社会背景及发展的文化轨迹,从而比较准确地把握英汉语言中的文化差异。
1. 地理环境
英国是一个岛国,英国人喜欢海洋,所以英语许多习语来源于航海业。中国虽临海,而且海岸线漫长,但航海业一直比较落后,与航海有关的习语很少。中国农业人口众多,是一个典型的农业大国,所以汉语习语中有很大一部分是反映农耕生活的,如“五谷丰登,树大招风”等。由于地理、生态环境的不同,英汉习语的许多比喻形象也具有明显的差异。汉语说“雨后春笋”,英语却说“spring up like mushroom”。
2.
中国以儒学为中心,儒、道、佛相融合的思想体系在人们心中扎根,规范着人们的行为与认识。在西方,基督教起着特别重要的作用,人们将上帝视为理想的化身。汉语中有不少植物习语和佛教有关,如:借花献佛,檀越,檀林等等。英语中也有不少植物习语和基督教有关,很多都来源于《圣经》,如:the apple of one’s eye(珍爱的人;掌上明珠)。
3. 民族审美观
西方民族的审美心理偏重于再现,即注重审美的真实性,由于它的理性化,失去不少审美情趣;中国的审美心理也是以人为中心,因而中国的审美情趣相对而言比较丰富。英语在历史上曾受到斯堪的纳维亚语、法语、拉丁语、希腊语、德语等的影响,引入外来的植物喻词。而汉民族由于丰富的历史文化及长期的历史积淀,形成了本民族对某种植物特有的情感与文化,产生特有的词义,如松竹、松鹤等。这种植物词与动物词,植物词与植物词构成并列式的复合名词,具有喻义的情况在英语里是不多见的。在汉语中,有不少能带给我们积极的心理联想或富有审美情趣的语言却未必能引起英美人的共鸣。
4. 思维方式
东方民族的思维方式被描述为“整体的”、“辩证的”、“具象的”、“主观的”和“模糊的”;而西方民族的思维方式被描述为“具体的”、“分析的”、“抽象的”、“客观的”和“精确的”。东方人注重实践经验,注重整体思考,西方人注重科学、理性,重视分析、实证。
英语中,意义引申的基础是思维方式即纵向发展、微观分解,方式是提喻,意义范围较小;汉语中,引申的基础是思维方式的横向联系,注重形似,方式是隐喻,意义范围较大。如:clove(丁香)英语中的引申意义为“丁香花”、“调味品”、“丁香紫,淡紫色”;汉语中的引申意义为“女人的舌头”、“丁香花状的纽扣”、“丁香花状的耳饰”。
四、总结
与植物相关的英汉习语与其它方面的英汉习语一样反映出社会文化的一个侧面,渗透着浓郁的文化气息,展示出民族语言文化的发展与演变。各民族不仅使用其字面上的意义(1iteral meaning),而且使用其比喻意义(figurative meaning)。随着社会的发展,将会有更多的与植物相关的习语产生,只有认真研究和比较英汉习语中植物词喻义的差异,理解习语中植物的表层意思,而且要清楚其深层含义,才能有效地传递习语的文化信息,避免因文化差异引起误解和冲突,促进跨文化交流。
参考文献:
篇9
关键词:牛津英语;文化差异;渗透
中图分类号:G620 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1003-2851(2012)-06-0113-01
一、引言
小学阶段英语教学的主要目的不仅是教会学生掌握语言知识,更重要的是培养学生用英语进行交际的能力,确切地说是培养学生成功地同外国人进行跨文化的交际。语言学家吕必松曾指出:“所谓交际文化,我们可以理解为是隐含在语言系统中的反映一个民族的价值观念、是非标准、社会习俗、心理状态、思维方式等文化因素。”因此,我们奋战在一线的小学英语教师都要非常重视学生跨文化交际能力的培养,真正地激发学生学习英语的兴趣,从而提高学生英语的综合水平。
二、如何在小学英语课堂中渗透文化差异
(一)从教室环境入手
针对小学生年纪小、求知欲和好奇心重,喜欢观察身边事物的特点。我们英语老师可以积极主动地布置教室,适当设计一些英语名人名言,张贴学生自制的英语手抄报,体现出英语文化的氛围,吸引学生的注意并激起他们对英语学习的兴趣。教师也可定时开展小型的英语角活动,为学生提供练习语言的环境,也可通过英语角锻炼他们的胆量和交际能力。如果有条件利用活动课时间给他们观看一些他们感兴趣的英文原声动画片,不仅能给他们一个良好的模仿学习对象,还能使他们从中学到很多英语的俗语及文化特色。
(二)从生活入手
我们一线的英语教师可以根据教学目标和内容随机介绍一些与日常生活密切相关的英语国家的文化知识,激发学生学习英语的兴趣。如在进行牛津小学英语3B Unit 10 Do you play…?的教学时,可以让学生收集一些除书本上以外和体育运动有关系的单词:Olympic Games(奥运会),tennis(网球),skating(溜冰)…又如4B Unit7 At a snack bar,可以让学生准备ice-cream(冰淇淋),hamburger(汉堡),sandwich(三明治)这些他们平常经常会吃的英语国家中最常见的饮料和食品的实物,培养学生从自己身边去发现英语、学习英语的能力。每逢过节的时候就可以让学生们去收集一些关于这个节日的资料,记下来,课堂上进行交流,从中学生能学习到关于英语节日的传统习惯及文化习俗。
(三)从活动入手
学习和掌握英语,仅仅靠有限的课堂教学时间是远远不够的,我们教师还要积极利用课外时间,组织一些与学生日常生活密切相关的、富有英语色彩的活动来激发学生的兴趣,使他们产生了解外国文化的愿望。正如一位英语教育家所说:“Tell me, I will forget.Show me,I may remember.Involve me,I will understand.”在教学实践中,丰富学生对于英语文化知识的途径有很多。如:举办圣诞晚会、英语小故事演讲比赛、观看英语电影、卡通片;收集有关英语国家的饮食习俗,重要的节日,传统的文娱和体育活动等资料。
正是通过这一点一滴地渗透英语国家的文化知识,学生才能感受到一点一点的culture。通过让学生感受、体验、理解、接受来自英语国家的文化,进而促进他们文化意识的形成。
(四)从情境教学入手,培养英语思维能力
要培养学生跨文化交际能力,就必须重视培养学生对英语文化的意识,不断提高学生对中西方文化的敏感性,培养学生英语思维能力。小学生学习英语时,往往会受到母语的干扰。所以,在课堂上,通过组织一些以学生为主体、创造模拟情景的练习活动,如pair work,role play,group discussion,presentation等,一方面充分发挥了学生的主体性,激发他们的积极参与性,另一方面也为他们提供了口头锻炼的机会。通过创造模拟情景,使学生身临其境,掌握如何用英语打电话、看病、购物等一些基本生活语言技能。这种情景教学不仅使学生对所学内容记忆深刻,而且当学生在生活中碰到类似的语境时,便能从容自如。
三、结束语
综上所述,在英语教学过程中,教师不仅要认真备课,把握教材,还要仔细琢磨课文所反映的英语国家的文化、风俗习惯、风土人情等等,只有这样,才能使学生真正获得英语知识和交际英语能力。所以,学习英语的过程,也是了解和掌握英语文化背景知识的过程。对文化背景的掌握程度直接影响到一个人的英语使用能力,是能否得体运用语言的前提。因此,这就要求我们教师也要不断学习、不断更新,提高自己的文化修养和文化意识,要熟悉自己国家的文化和学生现有的知识水平及接受能力,使中西文化形成对比,更有效地进行文化教学,发挥教师的示范性作用。
参考文献
[1]耿卫忠.西方传统节日与文化[M].太原:书海出版社,2006.
[2]邓炎昌.现代美国社会与文化[M].北京:高等教育出版社,1995.
[3]许果,梅林.文化差异与跨文化交际能力的培养[J].重庆大学学报,2002.
篇10
英语是世界上使用最为广泛的语言之一,也是联合国及众多国际组织使用的官方语言之一,用英语作为母语的人数位居世界第三,仅次于汉语和西班牙语。由于地理环境、民族特点、民族风情的不同,很多以英语为母语的国家文化与中国文化存在很大的差异性,所以学习英语和学习汉语也就必然存在一定的差异性。《义务教育英语课程标准》(2011年版)指出:“在英语学习的较高阶段,要通过扩大学生接触外国文化的范围,帮助学生拓展视野,使他们提高对中外文化异同的敏感性和鉴别能力,进而提高跨文化交际能力”。因此,要学好英语,就必须了解、熟悉中西方文化对英语学习的影响。
一、中西文化的差异性分析
(一)地理环境的差异性
不同的国家、不同的民族因为在地球上所处的地理环境不同、生存环境不同,他们所使用的语言产生的背景也不尽相同。在很多情况下,对同一事物或同一现象也会通过不同的语言形式表现出来,这些都直接影响不同语种之间的互通使用。比如:在汉语中通常习惯于把表示方位的词语按“东西南北”排序,而在英语中则通常习惯于“north,south,east、west”。在汉语中常用的“东南、“东北、西南、西北”等表示方向,而在英语中通常用为“southeast,northeast,southwest,northwest”。
(二)文化传统的差异性
在1840以前,中国是一个长期处于闭关自守的国家,与西方国家的交流非常少,这就形成了完全不同的文化传统。文化传统对于一个民族的影响往往是长期的,甚至是根深蒂固的,这必然对语言习惯、语言用法产生影响。比如:中国人比较谦让而西方人比较直率,中国人见面时习惯于问“你吃了吗?”,西方人见了面习惯于说“见到你很高兴(Nicetomeetyou!)”,中国人为了表示礼貌通常都是优先考虑对方的兴趣爱好,而西方国家通常为“Idon´tcare.(我无所谓)”,这似乎显得有点不尊重对方,但在西方却是家常便饭。
(三)生活方式的差异性
中国人自古勤劳、朴实、勇敢,牛是中国古代人用来生产劳作的工具,牛向来以埋头苦干、任劳任怨,汉语中通常用“黄牛”精神、“俯首甘为孺子牛”来表扬人的勤奋,而外国人主要靠马耕作,所以西方人通常用马的精神来表示一个人的吃苦耐劳与勤劳,“asstrongasahorse(像马一样强壮)”、“worklikeahorse(像马一样劳作)”,另外西方人航海业比较发达,所以与水、鱼、船相关的词语也较多,如“tomisstheboat(失去机会)”,“anoddfish(怪人)”等。
(四)宗教信仰的差异性
中国人信仰佛教,西方人信仰基督教。这两种信仰对汉语与英语的语言及各自的本土文化影响是很大大的,处处能看这些信仰的身影。比如:中国人喜欢双数,认为双数为吉利数字,通常说“好事成双”、“六六大顺”、“十全十美”等,而西方人认为单数为吉利数字,通常说“Onehundredandonethanks(千恩万谢)”。在中国人的信仰中有“玉皇大帝”、“阎王”、“龙王”,有“大水冲了龙王庙,一家人不认一家人”等说法,而在英语中则不存在这些说法,只有从拉丁语、法语等其他语种借来的宗教词语,如“monk(僧侣)”,“angel(天使)”,“dean(教长)”等。
(五)思维方式的差异性
中国人与西方人在思维方式上也是有很大区别,因此在语言表达方式上也有很大的差别。比如:中国人姓名中的姓在前名在后,而西方人名在前、姓在后;中国人在写信时地名通常由大到,西方人则是由小到大;中国人习惯于按时间顺序以及事情发展的顺序,由论据到论点,而西方人则习惯于先摆出自己的观点,然后通过论据材料证明论点,所以在学习英语时一定要注意这些与汉语中的差别。
二、基于中外文化差异性的英语学习方式
(一)深入了解西方国家的历史文化
每种语言都有自己的民族特点,要想准确把握这种语言就必须了解这种语言所在国家、所在民族的风土人情和风俗习惯,因为不同的文化背景可以影响本民族语言的形成、演变及使用习惯,英语也不例外。所以在学习英语时,首先要深入了解英语国家(特别是美国、英国)的民族风情,了解这些民族风情与我国的民族风情的相同点及不同点,这样才能做到在学习、使用英语时更加灵活,才能真正掌握英语词汇、句子、段落及整篇文章的要表达的思想。
(二)掌握汉英词汇之间的差异性
词汇是语言的基本组成单位,汉语和英语中有些词汇在很多情况下其意义和内涵是不完全相同的,因此要从不同的角度挖掘词汇的内涵,才能有利于理解掌握。如:在表述颜色上,西方文化就比较理性、科学,其颜色的象征意义也比较直接。如:“red(红色)”主要是血的颜色,而“blood”则是人身体的生命体液,一旦血从生命中流淌出来,生命也就随之凋谢,所以在英语中“red”通常含有“恐怖、暴力”之意,而中汉语中“红色”则有“热情奔放”之意。
(三)在语法学习中体会中西方文化的差异
每一种语言都有其独特的语法体系,有时差异还比较大,比较明显的差异主要有:英语中常常有时态的变化,而汉语则没有;英语中有单数与复数之分,而汉语中则没有;英语中有动词结构变化之分,而汉语中则没有,英语和汉语中的副词都可以修饰形容词,而英语中的副词可以放在不同的地方,而汉语中的副词只能放在形容词与动词之前;英语中的从句一般放在所修饰的主词之后,而在汉语中修饰语句则放在修饰之前;英语结构以主语、谓语、宾语为主,变有例外,而汉语主要是主语、谓语、宾语,等等。
(四)在口语学习中感受中西方文化的差异性
口语是日常的交际语言,其语言的表现形式比较简单,但中文与英文的口语使用时有很大的差别,学习口语时应该把语言放在其实际的背景下去掌握。中国人见面时常说:“你好!”而西方人则说“Hi!”,“Hello!”,“Goodafternoon”;中国人喜欢问“你今年高寿”等问题,而西方人对这些问题则讳莫如深,他们常常说“Niceweather,isn’tit”,“Howareyou(gettingon)”。中西方口语表达之所以有这么大的差别,追根究底是因为其各自不同的文化习惯决定的。
(五)掌握更多的翻译理论和技巧