教养计划范文
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篇1
一、基本情况分析
结束了愉快的寒假生活,幼儿们又回到了熟悉的幼儿园中,我们班级总数为35名幼儿,通过三年半的时间,幼儿在学习和生活上都有很大的进步,大部分幼儿已经养成了良好的行为习惯,但也存在着一些问题,本学期我们将在培养幼儿喜欢上幼儿园的基础上,加强纪律教育,做好幼小衔接的教育,使幼儿在原有的基础上得到发展。
二、总目标
1.生活卫生习惯:注意个人卫生的习惯,由良好的进餐习惯。
2.学习能力:能主动积极参加幼儿园的活动,能将学习的知识运用在生活中,老师教歌曲舞蹈能有表情的演唱并表达出来。
3.语言发展:能简单的掌握优美的词语,并在交往中正确运用。
4.行为习惯:能互相谦让同学,有集体荣誉感,能自己收拾自己的玩具,书包。
三、教养工作目标与措施
(一)一日生活目标:常规方面
1.文明的进餐,前便后勤洗手。
2.能自己整理自己的仪表,注意保持仪表整洁。
3.会动手整理好自己的物品,了解身体主要器官及自身生长的需要。
德育方面:幼儿期是一个人道德品质行为重要形成的过程,而且对其一生将有深刻的影响。
教学方面:让孩子在丰富多彩的活动中,增加幼儿的知识量,丰富幼儿的认知。
特色课程:每日一句学习维语,并运用在生活中;围棋礼仪的学习,让幼儿在学习的氛围中快乐的学知识。
措施:在常规方面我们应看做重头戏,根据我们班的实际情况三位老师统一要求,从每一件小事抓起,坚持教育原则,对每一个幼儿平等,一致。德育方面,每周每位老师会进行一次礼仪活动,培养丰富多彩的道德情感。教学方面杜绝小学化,杜绝只抓学习,所以我们要提倡快乐学习。
保育工作:1.做好班里的每日消毒,保证饭前用消毒水抹桌子,保证幼儿饭前将手洗干净,保证每天幼儿起床后对卧室的消毒。
2.搞好班里的卫生工作,要求活动室和卧室地板干净,物品摆放整齐。保持桌面活动室无杂物。
3.培养好幼儿的各种生活习惯,以免幼儿病从口入。
(二)环境创设主题墙创设目标:根据孩子的兴趣把资料布置在主题墙上,在活动中,我们也会把孩子的作品,如剪纸、绘画、折纸等布置在主题上,让幼儿交流、学习,这样不仅促进了幼儿间的感情,还提高了幼儿学习的积极性,树立了幼儿的自信,促进幼儿的进步。
区域环境:让幼儿在科学、合理、有效的区角活动中大胆操作、大胆探索,促进幼儿自主性的发展,提到幼儿参与活动的独立性和主动性,从而使幼儿与他人的合作交往能力得到进一步的发展。
(三)教育教学目标
健康领域:1基本的生活自理能力,知道必要的安全保健知识,学习保护自己。
2.喜欢参加体育活户外活动,多增加体育游戏活动,让孩子在活动中得到多方面的发展。
语言领域:1.倾听对方讲话,能理解日常用语.
2. 乐意与人交谈讲话礼貌,能清楚的说出自己想说的事情.
3喜欢看故事、看图书,能听懂和说普通话。
4提供丰富的图画书籍,卡片,语言角区域活动,多说,多练。
社会领域:1能主动地参加各项活动,有自信心,乐意与人交往。
2.学习互助,合作和分享,有同情心,理解并遵守日常生活中的基本社会行为规则..
科学领域:1.探索周围世界和学习科学技术的方法和技能——观察、分类、测量、思考、实验、表达和交流信息,以及操作、解决问题的方法技能.
2. 展儿童的观察力、思维能力、创造力、动手操作能力和初步的解决问题的能力。进行一定的数学探索的活动,多设置一些环节在数学的区角活动中,让孩子在边操作边积累的过程中掌握数学知识。
艺术领域:音乐 能够初步感受并喜爱环境、生活和艺术中的美,喜欢参加艺术活动,并能大胆地表现自己的情感和体验,能用自己喜欢的方式进行艺术表现活动。可以在区角活动中播放孩子喜欢的音乐,让孩子可以感受音乐的美,多投放一些可以发声的物体,让孩子可以探索声音的奥秘。
美术 通过感知线条、形体、色彩等要素,初步感受周围的环境。艺术作品的形式美和内容美,对美具有敏感性。积极参加艺术活动体验乐趣,用不同材料,大胆的表现创造。在区域活动中,给孩子丰富的材料,在动手操作的过程中,喜欢绘画与操作,相互学习与借鉴。
教育措施:多为他人着想,鼓励幼儿多为同伴交流,尽可能求的他人的理解以满足自己的合理需求,减少消极情绪的产生,避免受到伤害。指导幼儿用比较连贯的语言,开展多种形式的听说游戏,引导幼儿进一步理解文字。引导幼儿学习文学作品,感受热心帮助他人的好品德、激发幼儿对进入小学的向往、引导幼儿理解劳动的意义、培养幼儿的时间意识、培养幼儿的合作及分享意识。
(四)创造性游戏目标:
幼儿游戏是幼儿的主要活动,幼儿在活动中成长起来的,在游戏中幼儿充分体现了自主与同伴协作的乐趣. 新《纲要》提出:“游戏是对幼儿进行全面发展教育的重要形式。”而创造性游戏是幼儿在一定的游戏环境中根据自己的兴趣和需要,主动地、创造性地反映现实生活的游戏.
创造性游戏措施:
本学期为幼儿提供丰富的游戏材料,足够的游戏活动场地,让孩子能够充分地融入到活动的场景中去,在相互交流的过程中逐步地提高与进步。
(五)、户外活动目标及措施
幼儿园的游戏目标要具体要便于操作,包含的内容要全面,要从幼儿的年龄特点出发,培养幼儿关心集体、团结友爱、遵守纪律、勇敢、主动、积极上进的优良品质,激发参与体育活动的乐趣。教师要了解玩具的特点,根据幼儿的运动发展水平有计划、有目的地组织活动。活动中培养幼儿相互谦让,相互友爱,注重提出安全要求,增强幼儿的体质。
(六)、家长工作目标及措施
充分利用网络平台、手机短信等方式,加强与家长间的沟通与联系,及时反馈孩子在园的情况、存在的问题或取得的进步,了解家长的建议。对生病幼儿及时与家长电话联系,结合家长的意见给予幼儿治疗和照顾。
(七)、安全工作
认真做好晨间接待和检查工作,了解幼儿当天情绪和身体状况,杜绝幼儿带危险物品入园,加强向家长宣传晨检的重要性,每天认真检查幼儿出勤情况,做好出勤登记,对缺席(请假)的幼儿及时了解原因。做好户外场地的检查、活动场地、器械的安全,提醒幼儿检查穿着,消除不安全隐患,让幼儿轻松参与活动。定期做好消毒工作,注意环境卫生。
四、其它
1、班级管理:班级的管理需要老师运用自己的智慧,这包括很多方面,这就需要教师要有多种能力,要有凝聚力,要有发现新问题、解决新问题的能力,使班级工作不断完善改进,做好教育与保育的的各项工作。
2、民族团结工作:
(1)、 观看音乐舞蹈录像《我们新疆好地方》,说说自己认识的民族,相互介绍自己对各个民族的认识。
(2)比赛:将民族娃娃送回家。分组将朝鲜族、蒙古族、藏族、维吾尔族等民族的娃娃图片贴到中国地图上的相应居住地。
(3)听各民族的音乐,找出相应的少数民族儿童服饰。
(4)进一步欣赏不同民族的音乐,并创编舞蹈。
(5)老师带领孩子们去儿童村少数民族家庭帮助他们,做一些力所能及的事情。
3幼小衔接工作:
(1)通过体育锻炼、疾病预防增强幼儿体质,使他们能够身心健康地迈入小学。
(2)在日常活动中培养幼儿正确的读书、写字、握笔姿势,同时,让幼儿懂得保护好自己的眼睛及各种感觉器官。
(3)注重安全教育,让幼儿懂得遵守交通规则,学会看红、绿灯,走人行道;有困难找警察,记住急救电话;知道不能玩水、火, 电。
(4)培养幼儿的时间观念及孩子良好的学习习惯,加强幼儿安全意识和自理能力培养。
五、具体工作安排
三月:3月3新学期家长会
四月:我是小花农主题活动
4月21地球日,我们的家园
五月:5月11日保护蛋宝宝母亲节
5月22-5月26亲子运动会
篇2
关键词 杂交稻;机械化育秧;秧田管理
中图分类号 S511.043 文献标识码 B 文章编号 1007-5739(2013)02-0039-01
近年来,江苏省沭阳县开展杂交稻机械化育秧、机插试验技术示范,取得了一定的成果。现将杂交稻机械化育秧技术总结如下。
1 品种选择
为保证秧苗安全成熟,根据机插秧的生长发育特点,以熟期稍早的中籼迟熟杂交稻组合为佳[1]。以江苏省沭阳县为例,5月15—20日进行落谷,宜选用生育期在135~143 d、国审适应气候条件的杂交稻品种,如Ⅱ优084、Ⅱ优1259,栽插时间在6月15日前后,确保9月5日前安全齐穗。
2 机插秧苗育秧
在水稻机插秧生产中,为保证秧苗成活,返青快,根据水稻栽培的农艺要求、高性能插秧机栽插作业特点,机插秧苗要具有以下特点:一是秧块标准。秧块的长、宽、厚分别为58.0、28.0、2.5 cm。秧苗分布均匀,根系盘结呈毯状,适合机械栽插[2]。二是秧苗个体健壮,基茎粗扁,色绿,根多色白,植株矮壮(株高12~25 cm),无病虫害。机插秧苗采用中小苗带土移栽,一般秧龄为15~20 d,无论秧龄如何变化,一般都在3.5~6.0叶龄内移栽。
(1)育秧材料准备。为使育秧顺利进行,根据机插秧的生产面积,做好秧池田的准备工作,同时根据生产需要准备育秧材料。
(2)营养土准备。育秧前要准备营养土,一般菜园土壤肥沃疏松可在过筛后直接作床土。其他可作床土的土壤取土前施腐熟人畜粪30 t/hm2、25%氮磷钾复合肥900~1 050 kg/hm2,或分别施硫酸铵、过磷酸钙、氯化钾450、600、75 kg/hm2 [3]。在床土过筛时添加旱秧壮秧剂,每100 kg细土加入0.5~0.8 kg。营养土pH值以5.5~7.0为佳,若土壤pH值偏高,为降低土壤pH值,可增施过磷酸钙调节土壤酸碱度。施后连续机旋耕2~3遍,取表土堆制并覆农膜至床土熟化。一般每盘准备营养土4 kg,另备经过培肥但未施入化肥的过筛细土1 kg,需营养土1 500 kg/hm2,经过培肥但未施入化肥的过筛细土375 kg/hm2。播种前5~10 d将营养土与壮秧剂按100∶1.25的比例充分混匀后堆闷。
(3)秧床准备。秧田∶大田为1∶80~100,一般每1 hm2大田需准备秧池田105~150 m2。选择背风向阳、田面平整、排灌分开、邻近大田的熟地作秧田。播前10 d做秧板,苗床长度根据生产需要确定,宽1.4~1.5 m,秧板间留宽、深分别为20~30、20 cm的排水沟。秧池沟深50 cm,围埂平实,埂面一般比秧床高15~20 cm,开好平水缺。为使秧板面平整,可先上水进行平整,秧板做好后排水晾板,使板面沉实,播种前2 d铲高补低,填平裂缝,充分拍实,使板面达到“实、平、光、直”[4-5]。
(4)备盘备种。大田备58 cm×28 cm×2.5 cm标准的塑料软盘240~270个/hm2,需备杂交稻种15.0~18.0 kg/hm2,进行软盘育秧时,采用机械育秧流水线需备足硬盘,用于脱盘周转。
(5)无纺布。机插大田需准备2 m宽无纺布19.5~24.0 m/hm2。
3 杂交稻育秧播种
杂交水稻盘育秧播种机2BL-280A型育秧试验数据及操作:一是顺次铺盘。在硬秧盘上放置软盘,从进秧盘区依次放盘,根据落谷面积计算软硬盘数量,杂交稻需240~270个/hm2。二是匀铺营养床土。调节好覆土箱控制器,铺装准备好的床土。要求床土排量稳定性2.998 6 kg/盘,标准差0.24 kg/盘,变异系数8%;盘内底土层厚度为2.324 cm,标准差0.082 95 cm,变异系数3.57%。三是精量播种。Ⅱ优084、Ⅱ优1259于5月25日播种,平均播种量为每盘75.566 7 g,每盘排种均匀性平均值为3.1粒,每盘排种稳定性平均值75.566 7 g,标准差1.58 g,变异系数2.090 9%;空格率5%,均匀度合格率89.5%。四是匀撒覆土。播种后均匀撒盖籽土,床土厚度平均为2.324 cm,标准差0.829 5 cm,变异系数3.57%,覆土排量稳定性为0.833 6 kg/盘,标准差0.123 3 kg/盘,变异系数14.791 2%。覆土厚度均匀性平均值0.21 cm,盘内土面平整以盖没芽谷为宜。注意使用未施化肥、壮秧剂但经培肥的过筛细土,盖籽后浇透水,再补喷敌克松预防水稻立枯病。五是依次铺盘。播种覆土好的秧盘从出秧口取出后,依次铺盘于畦面。六是覆盖无纺布。秧畦上铺好秧盘后,从秧畦一边铺无纺布,要求无纺布覆盖好后,略多出盘边,间隔0.5 m用泥块压紧,起到保潮、保温、促齐苗作用,同时防治灰飞虱在苗期危害,预防黑条矮缩病及蓟马、二化螟的危害。
4 秧田管理
(1)温度。播种至立针,膜内应保持高温、高湿,适宜温度30~32 ℃,超过35 ℃时开小口通风降温。齐苗至一至二叶期,膜内温度控制在25 ℃左右,高于28 ℃通风降温。3叶以后逐渐揭膜通风炼苗,达到与外界相同的气候环境。
(2)水分。秧苗期以半旱式水管为主,二叶期前以保墒为主,促出苗,三叶期后以旱为主,床土不发白或秧苗不卷叶不洒水,反之则洒水,洒水以早、晚为好。
(3)施肥。三叶期以后,每长1片叶施1次肥,可喷1%尿素或磷酸二氢钾溶液,施肥后再用清水冲洗2次以防“烧苗”。
(4)病虫害防治。地下害虫用3%呋喃丹颗粒1.5 g/m2拌毒土撒入秧田诱杀。稻蓟马、稻蝗、二化螟等害虫,可在秧田后期用氧化乐果或杀虫双水剂对水进行喷雾防治。出苗后,可补喷移栽灵、敌克松预防立枯病、青枯病,或用稻瘟灵等药预防稻瘟病的发生。
5 参考文献
[1] 方存金,许天生.水稻机械栽植技术应用与出现问题的探讨[J].福建农机,2006(2):11,13.
[2] 峰,陈惠哲,徐一成.我国水稻种植机械化的发展前景与对策[J].北方水稻,2007(5):13-18.
[3] 朱纪林,沈静,朱壮根.水稻机械化直播种植的实践与探讨[J].农业科技与信息,2008(15):8-10.
篇3
一“、文化碰撞”现象产生的初始
“文化碰撞现象”的根源就在于“新”与“生”,它是指人们在社会交往中突然失去了原本熟悉的一切符号和特征,而由此引发的焦虑与困惑。这种碰撞现象表现形式可谓形形。离开了熟悉的学习和生活环境,留学生们进入了一个陌生的文化中,甚至就像鱼儿离开了水,在日常生活中会感觉到许多方面无所适从。由于文化背景的差异及中国人内敛、含蓄的性格,初次见面留学生们连日常生活中何时握手最为合适,遇见不同的人应当如何打招呼,如何付小费,如何礼貌地谢绝邀请,如何得体地向别人说“不”都在困扰着他们。这种“文化碰撞现象”持续的时间越长,就会使留学生长久地陷入焦虑不安的困境中,随之而来的是行为举止方面出现了与所居住国格格不入的一些攻击性态度,在居住国人们的思维方式中,这种态度很容易演变为敌对态度。进而,他们也会渐渐地从开始的乐意接近你转变为对你也出现一些攻击性态度,最后就是回避你。还有的学生干脆躲进本国人群的社交文化中以回避陌生的文化,如此这般,留学就失去了真正的意义,这种“文化碰撞”现象给中国留学生与居住国的人们之间的相互了解与和睦相处带来了尴尬与困扰。
“文化碰撞”是国家之间不同文化和历史发展的必然结果,对于大多数人来说,了解异国文化的途径更多是通过外语教学完成的。在我国的大部分地区,外语教学瓶颈过多。“我国并没有学习和使用语言的社区,外语教学主要依赖课堂上进行……很多教师往往把语言形式的操练和有意义的交际活动混淆起来,而学生到现实环境中却用不出来。”[1]我们的外语界已经意识到语言教学与文化脱节的现象,越来越多的小学外语教学开始注重语言与语境的关联,中小学的英语教学改革正在积极地尝试中。当今社会,越是发达国家就越是包含了多元文化的特点,如果想要尽快地跨越“文化碰撞”,首先要了解居住国的文化本质及对个人行为准则的要求。一个独立的个人不是天生就带有本国的文化,而只是具备了学习和利用文化的能力。这就解释了为什么一个孩子生下来后所处的语言环境基本上取决于其父母所操的语言。所以说,一个人的文化背景是在一种不自觉的状态下,经过相当长时间的熏陶而逐步形成的,文化背景形成的过程也就是他学会克服困难,经过调整,逐步适应社会的过程。一旦学会了,他就掌握了在社会中生存、向社会获取他所需要的东西的本领。在跨文化对话中,我们必须有取他人之长、补己之短的思想准备……我们应尊重各国的历史文化、社会制度和发展模式,承认世界多样性的现实[2]。所以,在多元文化时代,一个人如果能客观地评价他国的文化,互相尊重、差异共存是熟悉新的文化环境的根本基础。
二、中国留学生“文化碰撞”的主要体现
对于国内尚未从校园走向社会或刚刚踏入社会的学生们来说,不但异国的社会里显现的文化是新鲜的,甚至连学校也变得如此陌生。习惯了接受国内的老师按照国家统一的教学大纲进行授课的方式,留学生们一下子难以适应国外学校课堂教学所采用的课堂讲座、独立阅读、撰写评论的教学方法。国内十几年的英语教学基本上是脱离语言环境的演练,中西方的学习机制差异使得中国学生一下子无法适应国外的教学理念,国内的教育疏于对学生所学知识和社会现象的“反思”与“批判”,考试的标准答案及自小学到大学的评价考核体系忽略了“独创”意识的培养和“诚信”意识的多种表现,习惯于互相参考别人的答案在异国成了学术“剽窃”行为,而我们的学生对此还感到“一头雾水”。
在课堂上需要对材料、讲座、观点进行分析与评论的时候,中国的留学们大都被“冻僵”了。在中考、高考格局下一路学到高中、大学的留学生们或许已经习惯了多年来养成的以教师为中心的授课方式。他们在课堂上多数时候都在静静地听讲,而不是像外国学生那样喜欢“出风头”,更不愿给老师提难题来制造麻烦,在留学生们的内心深处,他们最怕的是回答问题出错,那是非常“丢面子”的。长期以来养成的谦卑性格使得留学生们即使被当众表扬也会感到不好意思,然而这一切都令外国师生感到不解。老师发动学生一起参与部分教研活动,使一些留学生感到老师是否准备不足,而把自己的工作摊派给了学生;教师放手鼓励学生张开想象的翅膀,积极参与讨论的开放式教学,令留学生们充满疑惑:“课堂上做游戏不做题能学到知识吗?”他们甚至怀疑老师是否没有认真备课。当他们主动邀请外国学生到家做客时,没想到得到的回答是“对不起,我明天有约会”。我们可以为重要的客人而等待,而西方人到点就开宴。此时,他们感到“外国人太绝情了”,可他们不了解西方人的时间观念,要提前几天告知安排聚会等活动。我们常说的“不见不散”就正说明了时间是可以“无限延长”的,而在西方一些国家,这是对时间的浪费。令留学生们包括家长们担忧的是:男女学生同居一室无人过问,而同性学生同居一室却招来非议,尽管西方一些国家认可同性婚姻,但是多数中国家长依然无法接受。中国学生不一定知道导师办公室的门紧关着时意味着“请勿打扰”,他们可能此时去敲门无人应答而倍感冷落。
而当导师办公室的门开着,表示“欢迎光临”的时候,他们却绕道而行,放弃与导师沟通的良机。如此这般反复,会令导师产生不快,而学生们却不知错在哪儿。求学路上最不能被导师接受的是学术造假,论文抄袭,数据造假,考试作弊等,这已成为留学生被海外学校辞退的第一大原因。近年来,少数家长和学生为了追求“洋文凭”,不考虑学生自身较弱的知识基础和不良学习习惯,缺乏毅力恒心,盲目地选择海外留学,这样的留学生遭遇“文化碰撞”是必然的,奢侈消费、盲目攀比成为抚慰心灵的一把利器。此时此刻,愈发强烈的思乡之情在折磨着他们,国内的一切是多么的美好和重要。在国内,习惯了被指挥被安排的学习模式,麻烦与困难的背后有家庭和学校的担当,而异国他乡的苦难与麻烦是留学生和家长们不曾想到的,有的留学生就出现了极端的行为。以美国为例,典型的实用主义价值观,空洞的人生观教育只能使一些缺乏独立自主意识的留学生在不同文化的夹击下迷失了自己。
三、克服“文化碰撞”需要适度调整观念
那么,如何尽快克服以上几个方面的问题呢?首先要攻破的就是语言关。因为语言本身是交际的主要符号。一旦你打开了与同学、邻居、朋友交谈的话题,能独立去购物、旅行,你很快就会找回你的自信和感情的力量。正如英国语言学家L.R.帕默尔指出:“语言在忠实地反映了一个民族的全部历史和文化的同时,也忠实地反映了其各种游戏、娱乐、信仰和偏见。”[3]其二是尽快熟悉西方的先进教育理念,从“应试教育”转向“应用教育”,最终要从根本上接受诚信教育。诚信是基督教国家几千年来形成的价值体系,是做人做学问的根本法则,破坏了诚信的体系,意味着跨文化交际能力培养的根基坍塌。在全新的异国文化面前,要想成功进行跨文化交际的锻炼,你要逐渐地学会由自责变得自嘲,不再一味地考虑“面子问题”,你应了解他们的兴趣所在,一旦大家找到共同的兴趣,那你也就容易被别人接纳了。留学生们需要加强如下几个方面的调整:
(一)开放的头脑西方国家的人们喜欢旅游,读书,他们认为这些是对于一个人能力培养的最基本的手段。其实,这同我们中国人所持的“行万里路,读万卷书”的思想是完全一致的。一个人经历得越多,他就越是具备了接受变幻莫测事情的能力,这种能力对于在跨文化交际中需要随时做出的调整是非常重要的。在一个新的环境中,或许每一天都会有意想不到的事情发生,所以要富有灵活性和适应性。对你做出的每一种选择尽量留出一些可选择的余地,这样既能使你在几种方案中做出最佳选择,又考虑到了应急的措施。
(二)适应失败的能力因为在跨文化交际中难免要出现令人费解、恼怒、尴尬甚至沮丧的事情,每一个人在国外都不可避免地会遭遇失败。而现在大部分出国留学生在国内的生活都比较平稳或富裕,较少或不曾有过失败的经历,但在国外,却要具有一定的忍耐力去面对严峻考验和失败的打击。此时此刻,自嘲的幽默会帮助你保护自己不绝望。在困难的时候,不妨多想一想我们中国人的古训:“拿得起,放得下。”
(三)保持好奇心留学生们对异国文化的好奇心在经过“文化碰撞现象”的重创后,不免要有所减弱。但是,学生们一定要尽快地恢复起好奇心,因为你必须了解和吸收别人的文化,才有助于你更快地适应新环境。发达国家的多元文化中必然包含了不同的,而不同的指导着他们不同于其他人的思维方式与行为准则,保持好奇心会帮助你去不断地了解他们的社会。
(四)客观的期望值很多出国留学生的目的就是为了使自己的生活阅历更丰富,学习先进的科学技术,为未来的职业生涯打下一个坚实的基础。所以,留学生应当给自己定下一个可行的目标,切记不能一味地好高骛远,而是要面对现实,一步一个脚印地走。
篇4
一、健全组织、完善制度。
1.成立组织机构。成立由新区管委会分管领导任组长,社会事业发展局局长任副组长,党政办、监察局、财政局、经济发展局、市食品药品监督管理局等部门为成员的新区农村义务教育学生营养改善计划实施工作领导小组。领导小组下设办公室,办公室设在新区社会事业发展局,办公室主任由社会事业发展局副局长担任,社会事业发展局学生营养改善管理工作人员为成员,具体负责新区托管乡镇学校学生营养改善计划的日常事务和组织实施。
2.建立责任体系。新区管委会是学生营养改善计划实施工作的行动主体和责任主体,各有关部门按职责分工,具体负责实施。
(1)社会事业发展局负责制定学生营养改善计划实施方案,会同有关部门做好日常工作,对食品配送及领取全程进行监督管理,负责学校卫生安全工作,指导学校开展卫生防疫、学生营养健康状况监测评估,对学生营养食谱和营养改善提出指导意见。
(2)监察局负责对营养改善计划实施工作进行监督审计。
(3)财政局负责专项资金拨付、监管及食品配送招投标监督工作。
(4)经济发展局负责建立价格监测和预警机制,组织开展生产成本调查和食品价格监督检查。
(5)工商分局负责供餐服务企业主体资格的审查和管理。
(6)食品药品监管部门负责对学校食堂、供餐企业及托餐家庭(个人)的食品生产流通环节进行安全监管,制定应急预案,组织查处食品安全事故;负责制定食品安全培训方案和教材,对实施营养改善计划的中小学校长、食堂负责人、工作人员以及供餐企业相关人员进行食品安全法规制度和行业规范培训。
(7)质监部门负责对供餐企业食品生产过程进行监管,查处食品加工中的质量问题及违法违规行为。
(8)各镇政府负责本镇学生营养改善计划实施方案的制订和组织实施工作,并定期或不定期组织相关人员进行督查、指导和评估。
(9)各镇中心校对本镇义务教育学生营养改善计划实施过程进行全程监管,及时报告食品配送异常情况,统计核对当天、当月学校学生食品发放数量,建立专项资金账目并负责核算。
(10)各有关学校负责营养改善计划的具体实施工作,实行校长负责制。学校要安排专人领取营养食品,妥善存放,每天按时、按标准发放到每一个学生手中,并做好实名登记工作,按月汇总上报。
3.健全完善规章制度。为进一步细化目标要求,靠实工作责任,确保营养改善计划的顺利实施,各镇政府和中心校要制定《学生营养改善计划实施细则》、《食品安全事故应急预案》、《食品安全保障管理办法》等相关规章制度。
二、供餐方式和流程
(一)供餐方式
国务院办公厅《关于实施农村义务教育学生营养改善计划的意见》(〔2012〕54号)文件明确规定:中央财政对试点贫困县农村(不含县城)义务教育学生提供营养膳食补助,标准为每生每天3元,全年按在校200天计算,每生补助600元。补助资金不得发给学生或学生家长个人,由学校按标准统一提供营养早餐、课间加餐或午餐。
根据《省农村义务教育学生营养改善计划试点方案》,全省可选用学校食堂供餐、企业供餐、家庭托餐三种供餐模式,结合新区目前学校食堂供餐条件尚不完全具备的情况,为了尽早为学生供应营养餐,启动阶段新区先采取通过各中心校招标确定企业统一配送、学校食堂(伙房)供餐模式,供餐内容为早餐或课间加餐。当新区农村义务教育学校食堂通过新建或改扩建能具备学生营养改善计划供餐条件时,新区托管乡镇学校将逐步采用食堂供餐方式。
(二)供餐流程
1.制定学生营养食谱:参照《省农村义务教育学生营养改善计划试点方案》中“营养配餐标准”,为便于操作,确保尽快实施,新区暂时确定为:星期一、星期三、星期五早餐供应:牛奶1袋(200毫升)、鸡蛋1个,烤花卷1个(100克);星期二、星期四早餐供应:伊利优酸乳1盒(190毫升),小烧锅1个(100克),苹果1个。当启动正常后,在供餐品种、营养成份、价格相当的情况下,适时予以调整,逐步完善营养配餐标准。
2.食品采购及配送接收。按照甘政办发〔2012〕27号文件中关于“鼓励学生营养食品原料采购本地化,建立食品生产供应基地”的精神,社会事业发展局负责牵头,通过镇中心校公开招标,确定供餐企业及采购品种、价格,并与中标企业签订合同及质量安全保证协议,由中标企业统一为新区托管镇学校供餐配送,各中心校在招标时必须发招标通知,竞标企业必须提供营业执照、经销证、机构代码证、税务登记证、全国工业产品许可证、公司授权委托书、清真食品许可证、质量管理体系认证、卫生许可证等证书原件和复印件。
配送食品车辆及用具必须保持卫生清洁,每次运输食品前应进行清洗消毒,在运输装卸过程中要注意保持清洁,运输后进行清洗,防止食品在运输过程中受到污染。
学校要确定专人接收供餐企业配送的食品,并按时、按量分发给学生。要认真做好配送食品的接收、保管、发放登记工作,建立食品收发台账。
3.存贮、加工食品。供餐企业和学校要建立符合食品安全卫生标准的食品储藏、储存场所,配备必要的食品储藏保鲜设施,建立健全食品出入库管理制度和收发登记制度。食品贮存应当分类、分架、安全管理,并遵循先进先出的原则,及时清理销毁变质和过期的食品,严禁不符合卫生安全要求的食品流向学生餐桌。需要熟制加工的食品应烧熟煮透,其加工时食品中心温度应不低于70℃。加工后的熟制品、半成品与食品原料应分开存放,防止交叉污染,严禁将回收后的食品经加工后再次提供。食品添加剂应严格按照《食品添加剂使用标准》(GB2760)要求的范围、用量和方法使用,严禁超范围、超剂量滥用。不得向学生提供隔餐食品、腐烂变质或者感官性状异常、可能影响学生健康的食物。食品在烹饪后至学生食用前的间隔时间一般不超过2个小时,若超过2个小时存放的,应当在高于60℃或低于10℃的条件下存放。加工食品必须做到熟透,不得向学生提供冷荤凉菜。
4.供餐。全体学生统一伙食费标准,由学校食堂(伙房)统一提供食品。学校校长或管理人员要轮流陪餐(餐费自理),做好陪餐记录,及时发现和解决供餐企业和学校食堂(伙房)存在的问题和困难。
5.食品留样。每餐次的食品成品应留样,留样食品应按品种分别盛放于清洗消毒后的密闭专用容器内,并放置在专用冷藏设施中,在冷藏条件下存放48个小时以上。每个品种留样量应满足检验需要,不少于100g,并保存食品名称、留样量、留样时间、留样人员、审核人员等信息记录。
三、建立管理系统
1.建立学生实名制管理系统。根据教育部《中小学学生学籍信息化管理基本信息规范》要求,由新区社会事业发展局负责,建立实名制学生信息管理系统。对农村义务教育阶段学生学籍实行联网式电子化管理,项目包括:“学号、姓名、性别、出生年月、政治面貌、学生电子照片、家长姓名、家庭地址、联系电话、所在学校”等内容。校长对学生资格审查负全责,学生信息由班主任登记造册,校委会成员分工负责审核学生信息登记情况。
2.建立学生营养健康状况监测评估制度。由新区社会事业发展局牵头,会同镇卫生院、中心校建立学生健康检测指标体系,对学生身高、胖瘦、贫血率等指标进行跟踪调查。建立学生营养状况监测评估制度,定期或不定期组织监测评估小组调查了解学生营养状况,为开展营养改善计划绩效评估提供科学依据。
3.建立实施义务教育学生营养改善计划工作资金管理制度。新区财政局、社会事业发展局要制定严格的经费管理制度。各镇中心校、各学校要建立独立帐户,严格帐目管理,独立核算,做到专款专用,不得将营养餐费用直接发给学生及家长个人,不得用于员工工资等人员经费的开支,任何单位、组织或个人不得截留、挤占和挪用。
四、加快学校食堂(伙房)建设
1.农村学校食堂(伙房)现状和供餐能力
新区托管乡镇5所寄宿制学校,食堂仅能够对寄宿学生供餐。面向全体学生供应营养餐存在一定困难,需要进行扩容改造。其余43所学校没有食堂(伙房),需要新建或改造。
2.新建、改扩建食堂(伙房)建设规划
根据国家对学校食堂建设的标准,新区托管乡镇43所学校需要新建学生食堂,建筑面积11000平方米,需资金2200万元;5所寄宿制学校餐厅需要进行扩容改造,扩容改造面积600平方米,需资金120万元。以上共需投入资金2320万元。力争2012年内,通过争取中央、省、市专项资金支持和新区自筹,完成中小学食堂(伙房)新建和改扩建任务,以满足实施农村义务教育学生营养改善计划工作的需要。
篇5
人们在吃鱼的时候,如果鱼不是很大,通常都会把鱼鳔和鱼肠子一起扔掉。多年前妈妈买鱼的时候,就让剖鱼的人把别人扔掉的鱼鳔收集起来,我们就能吃到好几个鱼鳔。这东西有点像大动物体内的胶原蛋白,炖熟了之后有点黏软,口感很不错。
后来才知道,大鱼的鱼鳔是不扔的,可以收集起来晒干做成鱼肚,属于传统珍贵食材,与海参、燕窝一个等级。它的好处就是煮出来质地黏软,口感独特。同时,鱼肚中的成分溶到汤里,汤汁就有点黏黏的,能起到增稠作用。由于鱼肚这种材料并非家家能够买得起,很多人就把猪皮片成薄层,用油炸过再炖,那种柔软的口感也很特别,被称为 “假鱼肚”。
不过,那时候并没有多少人真的相信它有什么特殊营养,只不过是觉得属于山珍海味很高档,而且口感也不错。同样,在北方也很少有人听说它对女人有什么特殊的保健作用。即便我学了食品专业,也没学过到底鱼肚里有什么营养成分。
从我已有的知识来推测,花胶(鱼肚)的成分应当有以下几个特点:
1.它所含的是类似胶原蛋白的亲水蛋白质,这种蛋白质中的亲水氨基酸非常多,使它炖煮之后具有柔润的特性。但这个特性和营养价值之间不一定有直接关系,甚至可能某些重要的必需氨基酸存在不足。
2.由于这种食材能够干制后长期保存,不容易变味和变色,它应当含有较低的脂肪,碳水化合物含量应当也很低。除了大量的蛋白质,就是少量的结合水。
3.由于花胶是先经过干制,再水发,最后再长时间炖煮制作,显而易见它的维生素含量不会太高。即便原来有多种维生素,也会在加工过程中受到相当大的损失,起不到补充维生素营养的作用。
不过推测毕竟是推测,还要查查文献资料。
用“花胶”“鱼胶”“鱼肚”等关键词在中国知网查询之后,并未发现有相关保健作用的学术研究论文。所谓“补肾益精、滋阴养颜”等说法,只存在于非专业杂志的文章当中。换句话说,虽然古人说它“补肾益精、滋阴养颜”,但尚未有科学实验来证明其功效。有研究报告了把鱼肚水解之后做成液体滋补保健品的工艺,但也没有看到具体保健功效实验的说明,可能还停留在“说它补,它就补”的层面上。
不过,有关鱼肚成分的分析测定倒是有一些。
《中国功能食品原料基本成分数据表》中鱼肚的蛋白质含量为76%,脂肪含量1.0%,碳水化合物未检出。其中B族维生素的含量大多数测不出来,只有少量烟酸(最皮实、最耐折腾的一种维生素)保存下来,含量为2.09微克/100克干重。有测定研究发现(曾少葵等,2006),其中含有极少量的维生素A(15微克/100克干重)和维生素D(1微克/100克干重),但按水发后的重量来换算的话,这些营养素含量都非常之低,不能起到有效的营养补充作用。
鱼肚中的矿物质成分也很低。钾、镁元素少得可以忽略不计,按水发之后的含量来评价,钙、铁、锌、碘等元素的含量也基本上没什么营养补充意义。无论是《中国功能食品原料基本成分数据表》,还是其他研究机构的测定数据(曾少葵等,2006;宋春梅等,2001),结果都大同小异。
鱼肚就是一种富含蛋白质的食材,甚至可以叫它“蛋白质干”,其他方面基本上没有什么营养价值。但是蛋白质是由多种氨基酸组成的,它的氨基酸组成有什么特色呢?
有研究报告测定了几种不同鱼肚的蛋白质含量和氨基酸组成,发现来源和价格不同的鱼肚的蛋白质含量和氨基酸组成大同小异。其中最多的就是甘氨酸、丙氨酸、谷氨酸、脯氨酸、精氨酸和天冬氨酸等氨基酸,其中甘氨酸的含量特别多。
以上几种氨基酸都是具有良好亲水性的氨基酸,所以鱼肚善于与水结合,呈现出增稠的性质。甘氨酸和丙氨酸略有甜味,而谷氨酸和天冬氨酸具有鲜味,这可能是鱼肚的味道被人喜爱的重要原因。
同时,根据《中国功能食品原料基本成分数据表》中提供的数据,鱼肚中含有较高水平的精氨酸(6964毫克/100克干重)。按干重比较,这个含量和虾、贝、墨鱼、蹄筋等食物相当。它可以在人体内形成一氧化氮,对扩张血管、改善组织供血等有一定作用。我猜想,高精氨酸含量或许是古人“补肾滋阴”之类说法的来源。
前面说到鱼肚中所富含的那些氨基酸,都是非必需氨基酸。在人体有足够多的蛋白质和淀粉供应,也有足够的维生素帮忙的前提下,自己就能够合成甘氨酸、丙氨酸、谷氨酸之类非必需氨基酸。那么,从必需氨基酸角度来评价,鱼肚又怎么样呢?
人们都知道,蹄筋之类食物严重缺乏色氨酸,所以其蛋白质的生物利用率不高。同样,鱼肚中的必需氨基酸平衡也不太理想:它的色氨酸和苏氨酸含量相对比例较高,但异亮氨酸和含硫氨基酸含量非常低,这些氨基酸是人体无法自身合成的,所以它的生物价值也比较低。
对于花胶,有以下总结:
1.吃鱼肚对补充维生素和钙、镁、铁、锌等矿物质元素没有什么意义。
2.干鱼肚蛋白质含量高,脂肪含量低。水发之后,热量非常低,不会让人发胖。
3.鱼肚可以帮助人体补充一些精氨酸,这种成分对血管功能有好处,但因为吃进去的总量较少,实际效果比较有限,除非每天坚持按量吃。
篇6
本单元是初中最为完整的学习元素和化合物知识体系的一个单元,本课题是在学习碳单质、二氧化碳的制取的基础上,进一步学习这两种碳的氧化物。本课主要通过实验探究学氧化碳的性质。二氧化碳性质的学习是在系统学习氧气性质后展开的,对氧气性质的掌握起着巩固和提高作用,也为今后学习身边的物质如金属、酸、碱、盐等的性质打下基础,做好铺垫。
二、学情分析
学生大多数处在14-15岁的年龄段,正处在身心迅速成长的时期,大脑机能显著发展并趋于成熟,他们对化学的兴趣逐步由“直觉兴趣一操作兴趣一具有因果关系的兴趣向具有概括性的认知兴趣”迁移。
三、教学目标
l、知识与技能:
了解二氧化碳的性质;能书写相关的化学方程式。
2、过程与方法:
通过实验探究二氧化碳的性质,学会观察、分析实验现象及实验探究的科学方法。
3、情感,态度与价值观:
通过亲自动手实验,激发学习兴趣,增强学生的探究欲,并体验实验成功的喜悦。
四、教学重点、难点
1、教学重点:二氧化碳的性质;澄清石灰水的反应。
2、教学难点:二氧化碳与水的反应。
五、教学方法
本节课以引导探究为主、多媒体为辅的教学方法,通过实验体现学科特点,发挥实验的作用。在学习过程中突出学生的主体地位,强化学生的参与意识和主动探索精神,让学生在愉快的氛围中感知和探索知识,激发学生主动学习的热情,发展学生的思维,培养学生的合作意识和合作精神。
六、学法指导
在教师的组织引导下,采用自主探索、合作交流的学习方式,学生通过实验观察思考问题、获取知识、掌握方法,达到学生动手、动脑、动口能力的培养,学生真正成为学习的主人。
七、设计思路
本节课实验较多,联系生活和生产实际也较多,因此,在设计时以探究实验为活动线,以获得二氧化碳性质为知识线,将二氧化碳性质等知识搭上了趣味,愉悦,竞争的载体,发挥学生的主观能动性。
八、教学用具
仪器:大烧杯,折形薄铁片,集气瓶,玻璃片,软塑料瓶,酒精灯
药品:蜡烛、澄清石灰水,紫色石蕊试液、二氧化碳气体、稀醋酸、干紫色石蕊花朵
九、教学过程
情景导入:展示一瓶可口可乐,振荡,提出问题:观察到什么现象?是什么气体?怎样验证?关于二氧化碳,同学们还有哪些了解?下面我们进一步来学氧化碳。
讲授新课:
一、二氧化碳(板书)
(一)、二氧化碳的性质
师:请同学们回忆一下我们在学习氧气的性质时按照什么样的认知顺序来学习?
观察桌面上放置的二氧化碳,可得出二氧化碳的哪些性质?
学生相互讨论、交流、发言。
[小结]在通常情况下,二氧化碳是一种无色无味的气体,密度比空气大。
设计一个实验,证明二氧化碳的密度比空气大。
[实验探究1]二氧化碳的密度
教师介绍操作的注意事项。
学生进行操作,注意观察记录现象(教师巡视观察学生的实验情况并给与适当的指导)
根据现象进行分析得出结论。
师:二氧化碳还有没有别的性质?如二氧化碳能否溶于水?
学生根据生活经验,举例说明。
[实验探究2]二氧化碳的溶解性实验
教师介绍操作。
进行实验,观察,根据现象进行分析得出结论。
[多媒体展示]干冰及其升华,讲解。
根据以上所学,归纳二氧化碳的物理性质。学生讨论归纳。
师:二氧化碳溶于水的过程中有没有化学变化?
往实验2的矿泉水瓶中加入几滴紫色石蕊试液,观察溶液有什么变化?
进行猜想是什么物质使紫色石蕊试液变红?
[实验探究3]二氧化碳溶于水的过程中,有没有与水反应
教师介绍操作。
学生进行操作,注意观察记录现象(教师巡视观察学生的实验情况并给与适当的指导)
根据现象进行分析得出结论。
师:二氧化碳还有什么性质?
学生回答能使澄清的石灰水变浑浊。
[实验探究4]二氧化碳是否与石灰水反应
教师介绍操作。
进行实验,观察,分析得出结论。
归纳二氧化碳的化学性质。学生讨论归纳。
课堂小结:
师:通过今天的学习,同学们有什么收获?还有什么困惑?
学生回答。
应用:利用二氧化碳的性质验证可口可乐中冒出的是二氧化碳气体。
课堂练习:
布置作业:
板书设计:
一、二氧化碳
(一)、二氧化碳的性质
1、物理性质
(1)无色无味的气体(2)密度比空气大(3)能溶于水
(4)固态二氧化碳叫“干冰”,干冰易升华。
2、化学性质
(1)在一般情况下二氧化碳不能燃烧,也不支持燃烧。
(2)二氧化碳能和水反应生成碳酸
CO2+H2O=H2CO3
篇7
口语交际是由过去的"听话""说话"整合发展而来的,并加进了新的元素,既不是"听话""说话"的简单相加,也不全是对语文教学空白的填补。口语交际比听话说话的内涵更加丰富,更加全面,更加多元。口语交际教学的主要任务包括指导学生运用口语进行交际实践,规范学生的口头语言,发展学生的对白语言和独白语言,使学生掌握一定的口语交际技能,养成良好的交际习惯以及待人处事的交际能力等等。如何完成这此任务呢?
1.教学目标多元化
《语文课程标准》有关口语交际的总目标是:"具有日常口语交际的基本能力,在各种交际活动中,学会倾听、表达与交流,初步学会文明地进行人际沟通和社会交往,发展合作精神。"
口语交际是一种综合素质,它是知情意行的统一体,这就决定了口语交际教学要实现教学目标的多元化--"表达""倾听""交流"一样都不能少。交际双方还要就共同的话题进行对话,不断根据对方说的内容随机应变地作出言语回应。整个口语交际过程中,教师还得注意学生在口语交际时的态度以及语文背后隐藏着的思维、品质等,相机作出恰到好处的指导。只有坚持教学目标多元化,学生的口语交际能力才会获得全面、和谐的发展。
2.教学方法多样化
教无定法,口语交际教学同样如此。但灵活多样的方法中有一把总钥匙,即一个"活"字。为此,教师可以:
2.1创设交际情境,提高交际兴趣。适当的口语交际情境可以激发学生的学习兴趣、学习动力,并切切实实地提高学生的口语交际能力。
2.2提供交际案例,发展交际能力。案例学习是一种有效的口语交际训练办法。案例就是一个交际的情境,既可以描述正确的做法让学生仿效,也可以提出一些问题让学生发现,并探索、讨论正确的口语交际方法、途径。
2.3联系现实生活,拓展交际空间。口语交际课是口语交际训练的主阵地。在教学中,还要利用语文教学的各个环节有意识地培养学生的口语交际能力,并在日常生活中让学生积极主动地锻炼自己的口语交际能力。扎实的口语交际课应该兼容并蓄,打通课内外的壁垒,激活学生的已有经验。只有把交际内容和学生生活经验紧密联系起来,口语交际训练才会真正落到实处。
2.4加强渗透,构筑知识桥梁。在口语交际训练中,要渗透思维的培养,渗透思想教育,渗透审美教育,渗透读的训练,渗透写的训练。特别值得指出的是在口语交际教学中,应渗透创新能力的培养。这种创新能力渗透不只是提供一个民主的氛围、具有强烈生活色彩的情境,更主要是对学生创新思维的培养。教师教学中不能局限于一个标准答案,而要鼓励多元化,充分尊重学生的所思、所想和所说。
2.5营造交际情境,鼓励全员参与。营造交际情境,一方面指在教学中创设与交际训练相关的语境。另一方面指在教学中充分调动学生的情感参与。口语交际课涉及的话题十分宽广,教师要注意用多种形式和途径创设交际情境,并在教学过程充分调动学生的情感体验,活跃课堂教学。
口语交际课鼓励学生全员参与,是这种课型最主要的要求之一。在教学中,教师应着重从如下方面考虑:
(1)学生参与的状态。注意师生间的民主,保持学生饱满的热情。
(2)学生参与的广度。教学中做到人人参与,不应有被遗忘的角落。要关注经常不发表意见的学生。
(3)学生参与的时间。学生说话、活动的时间不能少于三分之二。
(4)学生参与的方式。教师在教学中要多想办法,让学生有机会并且形式多样地参与课堂。如:独白、小组讨论、模拟成人角色的活动等。
(5)学生参与的品质。注意保持学生的健康个性;敢于质疑问难,敢于发表见解,善于倾听、愿意表达。
(6)学生参与的效果。学生训练要落实,教师指导要得法,学生学得要高兴,学习效果要良好。
3.交际角色多元化
交际对象的不同,语言的运用也不同。在口语交际课中,应赋予教师和学生多重的角色身份并不断转换。指导点拨时,师生之间构成教与学的双边关系,在参与课堂交际活动时,师生之间、生生之间构成了交际关系,他们都是交际者。
就学生来说,一方面,学生是口语交际的学习者,课堂活动的直接参与者和合作者。当教师传授必需的口语交际知识时,他是知识的接受者,当其他同学展示他们的交际过程时,他又是欣赏者和评价者。另一方面,他们又是交际者,与教师和同学互为交际对象,必须在真实的交际环境中,与交际对象展开对话,交流和沟通。
就教师来说,教师既是学生进行口语交际的指导者,应承担起指导者的所有职责。同时作为交际者,教师应该扮演不同的角色,让学生学会与不同的人打交道。
4.教学途径多样化
凡是在人际交往的地方就可以进行口语交际的教学,这是由母语学习的广泛性决定的。生活就是口语交际的内容,,口语交际就是生活的工具,这应当成为教师的教学追求。所以,口语交际训练的天地是广阔的,途径是多样的。
4.1口语交际专题训练。通过教材中的专题训练,使学生比较系统、快捷地掌握口语交际的有关知识,提高相关技能。这种专题训练具有以下特点:一是跟学生生活实际紧密联系,具有广泛的适用性;二是遵循由易到难、由简单到复杂的规律。随着学生身心发展,他们的交际面会更广泛,要求的相应交际技能和素质也更高。
4.2渗透在课堂教学过程中。课堂教学就是师生交往的双向互动过程。每一堂课都为学生口语能力的发展提供了用武之地。语文课尤其如此。所以语文教师课堂上要有训练的意识,融口语交际训练于阅读课和作文课中。在一些好的语文课上,教师这方面的引导、矫正往往不着痕迹,与课堂主要教学目标水融。
"请大家仔细听,这位同学读得怎样?"这是让学生听清楚、听明白。"请大家评一评刚才某同学的回答。"这是指导学生在听的基础上学会思考,学习向别人提出自己的看法。
"别着急,吸一口气,再慢慢说。""你讲得很对,能不能说得再响亮些?"这是对学生口语交际信心的激发和口语技能的强化训练。
4.3随机训练
4.3.1紧扣生活随机训练。丰富多彩的生活给口语交际教学提供了活水源泉,教师要用心捕捉现实生活现象,诱导学生用学过的知识和自己的认识能力"评优劣,定从违",参与、影响班级、学校和社会生活,在这一过程中发展学生的口语交际能力。比如新转进来一个学生,大家怎样说欢迎辞等。
4.3.2利用活动随机训练。爱好活动是孩子的天性,班级、学校等经常开展活动,抓住活动的机会进行口语交际训练会取得比较理想的效果。
篇8
关键词:英语教学 文化差异 文化冲突 文化意识 跨文化交际能力
中国的外语教学从基础阶段到大学甚至研究生阶段,似乎一直都在为培养学生的应试能力而努力,使原本以培养学生实际应用能力为初衷的外语教学变了味。由于对语言的狭义理解与认识,外语教学中通常只是孤立地教语言,教语言形式,将语法、词汇、语音、书写等方面的知识的获得及所达到的程度高低视为评判教学是否成功的主要标准,而外语教学很少与文化挂钩,使学生在与不同文化的人交往的过程中,出现语用失误及文化的误解,导致学生在与外国人交流时出现很多障碍,甚至造成交际失败。究其原因,主要是教师忽视了英语中的文化因素。
语言和文化密不可分的关系决定了英语教学不仅是语言知识的传授,更应包括文化知识的传播和对学生跨文化交际意识和能力的培养。在英语教学中,教师要把语言看作是与文化、社会密不可分的一个整体,并在教学大纲、教材、课堂教学、语言测试全面反映出来;要努力营造交流的语言环境,培养学生强烈的文化意识,重视语言文化差异及其对语言的影响,最终实现英语教学中跨文化交际能力的培养。
例如:据说有一位女生到英国留学,好不容易租了一间房间,到了月底房东来收钱,钱到手,房东说谢谢,动身要走时,她出于礼貌,顺便练练英文就说:“Must yougo now ?Don’t you want to stay longer?”(就走了?不再坐坐?)没想到就是这句“客气话”差点没把老外吓跑。再如在英美国家,客人进入主人家,应脱掉外套以示礼貌,给人一种“宾至如归”之感。据说有不少中国留学生进入客厅时,没有马上脱下外套,当主人提出要将他们的外套挂起来时,他们起初往往会客气地说:“没事,没事,我自己来。”甚至说:“不用,不用。”主人见状便问:“Are you feeling very cold ?”他们不假思索地回答:“Yes,rather.”。中国学生根本没有领会英美的这一风俗习惯。这样的例子在我们身边还有很多。由此可见,在中国文化背景下属于常识性的行为,换在某个外国的背景下可能成为一种不合常识的行为;在某种文化下属于礼貌的行为,在另一种文化下可能被视为无礼。语言是文化的产物,它具有深刻的文化内涵,与不同的对象,在什么样的情况下,如何表述一个思想,与文化背景密切相关。从某种意义上说,学习一种语言,实际上就是学习一种文化。外语教学不仅是传授语言知识,使学生具备一定的语法能力,更重要的是使学生具有在不同场合说得体的话的交际能力,培养他们应用外语进行跨文化交际的能力。
在外语教学中,跨文化交际能力的培养必须从以下几个方面着手:
一、不断提高外语教师的跨文化交际意识和自身修养
教师在文化交际教学中起着主导作用。作为教师,如果自身跨文化背景知识贫乏,就不可能在教学过程中将知识传授给学生,那么想要培养学生的跨文化交际能力更无从谈起。在英语教学中强调英美文化,培养学生对英美文化的敏感性和英语的实用交际能力,这就要求教师不仅要有较高的英语语言功底,而且还要有深厚的英美文化素养。随着新文化的不断涌现,英语教师也需要不断的观察、总结、比较不同的文化。因此,要为教师提供进修机会,对其加强跨文化交际这门课程的培训,从整体上提高教师队伍的素质;教育者自身必须不断学习,可以通过互联网结交外国朋友,涉猎各种形式的文学作品,观赏外国电影,学习外文歌曲等多种渠道来了解外国文化,扩大自己的知识面,增加对英语国家文化背景的了解,了解语言与文化之间的密切关系,明确外语教学的主要目的是培养学生的跨文化交际能力。
二、在教学过程中掌握教学与民族文化蕴藏的内在关系,挖掘内涵,进行文化比较
不了解中西文化差异是学生语用失误的重要原因。教师应该努力激活教材内容,利用教材中与文化背景知识相关的话题充分挖掘其中的内涵,通过课堂教学渗透进行文化比较,随时提供和补充相关知识。比如,有个对话里出现了这样一个语境:一个小孩问:“How old are you ?”时,老奶奶用幽默的语调回答:“Ah,it’s a secret.”教师借此可将英美文化中的隐私和禁忌语的使用知识补充给学生,及时点拨学生领会文化异同现象。西方人认为在日常交往中,直接打听别人的经济收入、年龄、宗教、政治信仰、婚姻状况等是一种不礼貌的行为,因为那是属于与提问者无关的内容。而用谈论天气的办法来打开与西方人谈话的话题是非常明智的。所以当讲授有关天气的内容时,教师应该有意识地指出这一文化背景,并告诉学生谈论天气的方法多种多样,如Lovely day,isn’t it ? Miserable weather,isn’t it ? It is so cold today,isn’t it ? 又如中国人和西方人面对赞赏表达的方式不一样,中国人受到别人赞赏时习惯“谦虚”地说“过奖,过奖”或“哪里,哪里”,以示礼貌,而西方人会高兴地道上一句“Thank you very much.”或者“I’m glad to hear that. ”,所以,在讲授“Thank you very much.”这一句型时,教师应该尽量多地介绍它的使用场合。
另外,词汇教学中要注意某些词义在中英两种语言中的内涵并不一致。凡是遇到具体有文化内涵的词汇,教师都应适当提醒学生。如“狗”在中文中常带有贬义。在中国如有人听到“You are a luck dog”必然生气,但在英语中“luck dog ”是“幸运儿”的意思。又如,“congratulations”常译为“恭喜,祝贺”。在中国,人们对新娘、新郎都是一样的道贺“恭喜”;但在英美,“congratulations”只能对新郎说,而对新娘的恭喜是“Best wishes”或“I wish you very happiness”切不可以说“congratulations”,否则会令新娘大为不快。因为congratulations是对经过努力拼搏而获得成功的人的祝词。如果对新娘说此话,就意味着她曾千方百计地追求新郎,对她是一种莫大的耻辱。不过,要是在工作上,学习上取得成就时,人们则非常乐意听到congratulations。
总之在英语教学中教师不能只单纯注意语言教学,而应注意语言的文化导入,重视语言文化差异及对语言的影响,在不知不觉中让学生领会不仅要注意语言的准确性,还要注意语言运用的恰当性,使其文化能力和语言能力同步提高。
三、运用多种教学策略,提高学生对文化的敏感性
正如美国社会学家G.R.Tucker所说:外语教学如果只教语言而忽视文化教育,终究会使学生丧失兴趣;而如果能提高学生对文化的敏感性,则可将其对其他民族文化的好奇心转化成学习该民族语言的动力,为外语学习奠定基础。
教师可以根据教学内容运用词义挖掘法、习语对比法、翻译对比法等文化教学策略,配合口头报告、小组讨论、即兴演讲、采访等任务驱动型课堂活动。在课堂上除了完成基本的语言学习外,还应充分为交际提供时间、环境和实践的机会,应用各种现代教学手段如网络、多媒体、英美报刊杂志、幻灯机、录像机等为学生创设语言情境,引导学生接触西方文化,提高学生对文化的敏感性,帮助学生在用中学,学中用,提高跨文化交际能力。
四、培养学生跨文化交际意识,培养学生英语思维能力
要培养学生的跨文化交际能力,就必须重视培养学生的跨文化交际意识,不断提高学生对中西文化差异的敏感性,培养学生的英语思维能力。学生学习英语时,往往难以摆脱母语的干扰。所以,在课堂上,通过组织一些学生为主体,创造模拟情景的练习活动,pair work,role play, group discussion, presentation等,一方面能激发学生参与的积极性,另一方面也为他们提供了口头训练的机会。创造模拟情景可使学生身临其境,这种情景教学不仅使学生对所学内容记忆深刻,而且一旦在生活中遇到类似的语境,他们也能从容自如地应对。营造英语气氛,找准学生学习英语的兴奋点,变乏味的知识为有趣的生活情景,变学生被动吸收为主动参与,变教师单向灌输为指导学生,让学生在一个良好的语言环境中熟悉语言,学习语言,使他们逐步获得用英语进行日常交流的能力。
外语教学的基本目的是为了跨文化交际,也就是来自不同国家和文化背景的人的沟通交流。提高外语教学的效率和质量变得越来越重要。为了实现这一目标,我们必须意识到外语教学是跨文化交际的一部分,语言教学不应该把语言学习与文化分割开来。在外语教学中,要培养学习者的交际能力,要使得学生对跨文化的差异有敏锐的感知,使得他们了解不同文化之间的差异,并在实际的跨文化交际中灵活运用这些文化知识。因此,为了使学生更好地掌握英语,我们在教学中不仅要传授语法、词汇等方面的知识,还需指导学生学习和熟悉英语国家的社会和文化背景知识,注意不同国家的文化差异,充分重视对学生英语实际能力的培养,努力实现英语教学既提高学生语言能力有培养跨文化交际能力的双重目标。
参考文献:
[1]E. Hinkel. Culture in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress.
[2]胡文仲.跨文化交际学概论――跨文化交际丛书[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1999.
篇9
语言能够反映一个社会的文化,脱离语言的文化背景,也就脱离了语言的土壤,我们很难掌握一门语言。中法两种文化在社会行为、思维方式、交际风格和非语言交际行为上均存在差异,这些都给我们学习与正确使用法语带来困难。即使对于相同的词汇、称呼或手势,在理解上法国人与中国人就存在差异。体现在法语教学中,教师在输入学生语言能力的同时,更重要的应该让学生了解东西方文化存在的差异。
跨文化能力培养的重要性
1 是时展的需求:随着全球一体化的不断发展,在对外交流中,增强学生的跨文化意识和国际视野、了解世界各国的文化习俗,是社会发展对新时期外语教学提出的更高要求和新的目标。交际能力的基础是语言,因此在具备语言能力的基础上,要不断增强文化交际的意识。
2 文化与语言的密切联系:语言是一种交际工具,新时期外语教学的目的实际上就是学生语言交际能力的培养,使学生能将法语作为交流的工具,能在特定的语境中,依据相应的主题和双方的身份、环境等讲出符合语境的话。语言与文化联系密切,不可分离,语言是文化传递的载体,是文化不可分离的部分,语言与文化互相依存;同时语言又受到文化的影响,体现语言的文化、理解一门语言就必须了解它的文化背景,通过语言了解文化,文化和语言是紧密联系、相辅相成。他们之间的这种关系决定了语言传授者也必然是一名文化传授者。
3 符合法语教学的要求:培养学生的跨文化交际能力是外语教学的根本目的之一。但传统法语教学主要侧重培养学生的基础“听、说、读、写”技能。单一的书面教材模式,缺乏真实的语言环境,使学生只能透过书本按部就班学习有限的单词和语法,忽视了语言文化背景知识的重要作用。传统模式培养出来的学生虽然能很好的掌握语言的单词和语法系统,但缺乏语言交际能力培养,做不到语言符合语境。并且学生在听、说、读、写各个方面也会受到制约,不能全面发展。在法语教学中注重跨文化意识的培养,不仅能使学生克服“母语的干扰”,养成良好的外语思维,达到活用语言的目的;同时也有助于学生理解中法文化差异,不断提高其外语文化修养,使语言和文化达到融会统一。
法语教学中如何培养跨文化交际能力
在法语教学中,语言教学是中心任务,语言、文化和交际相互作用、密不可分的关系决定了法语教学离不开文化教学和交际能力的培养。当今国际合作广泛深入,文化交流日益频繁,了解不同文化,增强语言意识和文化意识,开阔视野,培养灵活的、适合于多种社会文化环境的交际能力已成为法语教学的目标。
1 不断提高法语教师的跨文化交际意识和自身修养:外语教师在文化交际教学中发挥着主导作用。作为法语教师,首先要不断丰富自身的跨文化背景知识,才能在教学过程中将跨文化意识传授给学生,这是培养学生的跨文化交际能力的基础。教师在教学过程中要强调中法文化差异,不断培养学生对法国文化的敏感性和实用运用语言的能力,这些都要求教师不仅要有扎实的语言文字功底,并且要有深厚的文化素养和跨文化意识。随着中法文化交流的不断深入扩大,法语教师也应当不断进修,与时俱进,不断观察,总结两国文化差异,加强跨文化交际这门课程的学习和培训,从整体上加强教师队伍的文化素质。
2 在教学过程中突出文化差异,明确教学与文化之间的内在联系:通过教学实践总结得出,学生语用失误的主要原因之一是缺乏对文化差异的理解。教师应该灵活运用教材内容,充分挖掘教材中与文化背景知识相关的主题,通过课堂教学进行中西文化比较,提供和补充相关背景知识,使语言架构在文化的背景之上。当今的语言教学,教师不只是单纯的语言传输者,而应当是语言背景文化的导人者,在语言文化差异的基础上,通过语言的学习潜移默化地让学生掌握语言文化知识,并能恰当的运用语言,使学生的语言能力和文化能力得到同步的提高。
3 结合多种教学策略,提高学生对文化的重视:在法语教学中,教师可以根据教学内容运用多种文化教学策略,比如:词义挖掘法、习语对比法、翻译对比法等,并配合口头演示、小组讨论、即兴演讲、实训项目等任务驱动型课堂活动,在完成基本的语言学习外,还应当给学生充足的语言交际机会、时间和真实的语言学习环境,运用现代教学手段,如网络、多媒体、报刊杂志、广播等为学生创设文化语言情境,引导学生了解法国文化,提高文化的敏感度,帮助学生在用中学,学中用,不断培养学生的跨文化交际意识。
4 培养学生跨文化交际能力和外语思维方式:首先要重视学生的跨文化交际意识的养成,提高学生中法文化差异的敏感性,培养其外语思维方式,不断增强学生的跨文化交际能力。在外语学习时,学生首先遇到的难题往往就是难以摆脱母语的干扰。
结语
篇10
As we know, with the rapid development of technology and society, the globalization is the main-stream of world development. Because of the frequent communication and close connection between the people all over the world, and especially after China entered the WTO, foreign languages are used more and more widely. During the cross-cultural communication, if one is ignorant of the culture and customs of the other, he or she is surely unable to have a good understanding of the other and can’t carry on the communication further. As English is the most widely used language, it’s quite necessary for us to know the culture and customs of the people of the English-speaking countries. That’s the reason why we need not only to improve the language skills, but also to cultivate the studentes’ abilities of the cross-cultural communication.
This paper mainly deals with the relationship between the language and culture, the necessity of cultural education, the principles and content of cultural teaching and how to build the students’ cross-cultural abilities in middle school English teaching.
[Key Words] intercultural communication; English teaching; cultural introduction; cultural knowledge [摘 要] 在传统的英语教学中,诸如词汇、短语、语法等英语知识内容受到了广泛的关注,而英语作为一个民族语言的文化背景却被大大地忽略了。结果,学生学了几年英语,对英语和母语之间的文化差异,以及说英语民族的风俗习惯仍一无所知。从而,在与外国朋友的交际中,出现过许多偏差,误解,甚至笑话。
众所周知,随着科技的飞速进步和社会的迅猛发展,世界正向全球化和一体化发展。世界各国人民日益频繁的交往和更加紧密的联系,特别是中国加入世贸之后与外界交往的加强,使外语的使用也变得越来越频繁和广泛。不同文化背景的人们在相互交际中回避不了文化差异问题。在交际的过程中,人们如果不了解对方的文化和风俗习惯,就不可能进行有效的交际。英语是世界上使用最广的语言,中国人要学会用英语进行交际,就必须了解英语国家的文化,特别是交际文化。因此,英语教学不仅要提高学生的语言能力,还要提高学生的跨文化交际能力。
本文分为五个部分:第一部分简单介绍了语言和文化的关系;第二部分阐明了在中学英语教学中进行文化教育的必要性。第三部分讲述了实施文化教学的过程中所应遵守的原则。第四部分分析了进行跨文化交际能力培养所应导入的文化内容。第五部分说明了在中学英语教学过程中怎样实施跨文化教育的途径和具体方法。
[关键词] 跨文化交际; 英语教学;文化导入;文化知识
1. Introduction
Language is just like a mirror that reflects its national culture. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that culture comprises all products of human activity, including fields of literature, art, music, architecture, philosophy, scientific and technical achievements as well as aspects of customs, life-style, code of conduct, worldly wisdom and social organization, etc. Languages are generally accepted words and rules drawn from speech. Language is the carrier of culture and culture is the content of language. There is no language without culture content. Therefore learning culture knowledge has become a major part of teaching English to Chinese students. International communication is communication between people whose culture perception and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.
Worldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions. First, we live in an age when changes in technology, travel, economy, and political systems, immigration patterns, especially the emergence of Internet, have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures. And whether we like it or not, these interactions will continue to grow in both frequently and intensely. Second, people now know that the influence of culture affects communication in a subtle way. Our culture perceptions and experiences help determine how the world looks and how we interact in the world.
However, as we look back to see the situation in China’s schools. We see that, for several decades, language teachers have not been able to pay attention to the role of culture knowledge in language learning. Nowadays, in English teaching, especially in middle school, teachers pay much attention to vocabulary and grammar.
As Chinese culture is not the same as that of English-speaking countries, the rules for using Chinese are, in some respects, different from those using English. There is especially good evidence that Chinese students may transfer their mother tongue references of language used to their English performance and fail to communicate effectively. Misunderstanding caused by cross-cultural communication should break down and much attention should be paid to them in English language teaching.
So in middle school English teaching, teachers must not only train and improve students’ language level, but also pay attention to cultivating students’ abilities of intercultural communication.
2. Significance of cultivating the abilities of cross-cultural communication
2.1 The request of the development of Internationalization
Lin Dajin in the "cross-cultural communication study," pointed out that culture can be defined as " the integrated feature that a nation is distinct from another nation." Cultural differences are the barriers of cross-cultural communication. The modernization process accelerated the circulation of spiritual and material products, and brought all nationalities into a common "global village", [1] cross-cultural communication became an integral part of national life. If people do not understand the cultural convention in the USA or Britain, and use the way of China to treat foreigners, then it will create a lot of jokes, and even hurt each other's feelings, self-esteem and cause misunderstanding. Thus, to overcome the cultural differences caused by communication barriers has become a common problem faced by the entire world.
2.2 It is imperative to understand the cultural background knowledge
Understanding cultural knowledge is the key to language learning. “One can not really learn the language, and teach language well unless one knows the patterns and norms of culture and cultural background (Song Fei, 1998)." [2] Without a specific cultural background, language is non-existent. If we don’t know the culture of target language, we would find it is difficult to understand the meaning of certain words. For example, “Thanksgiving", "Sandwich" has been brought about in a specific social and historical circumstance, it is not enough merely to know the meaning of the surface of these words. Another example is: “You are, indeed, a lucky dog", the literal translation is "you are a lucky dog." This is a satiric sentence in China, because, in Chinese views, "dog" is an expression when people used to refer generally to dislike someone. While in English, it can mean, "You are a lucky man." In Western society, "dog" is a family member, and they are harmonious coexisting with people "Dog" here refers to people instead of satirizing others, but a very intimate expression. [3]
2.3 Cultural knowledge teaching is the objective of language teaching.
The main objective of language teaching is to train and develop students’ interpersonal skills. And cultural knowledge teaching can increase the ability of cross-cultural communication, which is the important content to achieve goals of language teaching. For example, in American society, praise and compliments language that flatter mainly a personal appearance, new things, personal property, and inpiduals in a certain area are commonly used as the introduction to a conversation. This is different from Chinese. Thus, different nations have different cultural environments, different living habits and different languages behavior expressions. And as a language learner, if not ideologically “physically entering their social linguistic environment” will be difficult to achieve the goal of language learning,not to say that language teaching objectives will be accomplished.[4]
3. Principles of culture teaching.
The foreign language teaching in middle school is the foundation of our country’s foreign language teaching. As an English teacher, one should provide the most useful cross-culture knowledge in the limited teaching life.
Just as what we mentioned above, we have been aware of the importance of learning some cultural knowledge about the target language. It seems impossible and unnecessary for us to have a systematic study of target culture, which covers almost everything, in one’s whole lifetime. The difficulty shows that culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional and complex. A good solution to this problem might be to learn selectively those cultural factors that have great influence on intercultural communication, and that are closely related to the language. So on culture teaching we should follow these principles :( 1) Interrelated [5]. that is culture teaching must be interrelated with the content of the text. (2) Appropriate, that is culture teaching must be subjected to language teaching. (3) Practical, that is culture teaching must try to be “useful” for students in their communication. (4) Scientific, that is culture knowledge must be taught correctly, completely and objectively. (5) Flexible [6] ,that is culture teaching must be flexible according to the change of the world.
We must obey these five principles if we want to cultivate students’ abilities of cross-cultural communication. What we should teach in ELT classes is simply a foreign way of life related to the target language and teachers should avoid bringing their own cultural prejudice into class. The world is changing, so are the traditions and customs. The constant changes require us to improve our skills of intercultural communication by doing two things: understanding the cultural differences, especially the differences in the deep structure of different cultures, and becoming flexible in intercultural communication. There is a great tendency that one culture adopts the elements from another that are compatible with its own values and beliefs or that can be changed without causing major disruption.
4. Content of culture introduction
English teaching in middle school is the foundation of foreign language teaching in our country, so English teachers should provide the most useful knowledge of cross-cultural communication in their limited teaching period.
4.1 The content of intercultural communication
Generally, teaching content is based on certain syllabus, but now because culture introduction is a new issue, so we have neither specifical teaching materials nor specialized classes. What we can do is to mention it when it appeared, so it is very arbitrary and relatively loose. Professor Hu Wenzhong integrated the existing achievement of language and culture studies, and pided the teaching of cultural content into five aspects: language communication, non-verbal communication, communication customs and etiquette, social structure and human relationships and values. Secondary English teachers can base on these five aspects in listening, speaking, reading and writing to teach and guide students.
4.2 Content of intercultural communication in listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
4.2.1 Listening
Broadly speaking, listening is a process that listeners hear the voice and decipher them to semantic meanings. It needs to have not only the relative knowledge of words, tone, grammar, and so on, but also knowledge of the socio-cultural knowledge. Whether listeners have the knowledge is the key to achieve the listening comprehension. Such knowledge is common knowledge, beliefs and experiences of each communicator. If one neglects these existing cultural differences, he or she will have some obstacles to listen, because English listening is understood by the hearing stimulated the cranial nerve, and the impression left as the sole basis for reflection. [7]
We cannot understand the meaning of listening material by English words, phrases or groups of semantic rank order. What we should do is to lessen the gap of mentality difference in order to adapt to the English sentence structure rapidly and accurately while we are listening, and understand the English language habits. Whether students understand the intent of the speaker or writer depends on their level of language, and also depends on if students master the words involved in the social and cultural knowledge. [8]
The purpose of listening is to understand the speaker’s real meaning in words and exchange information successfully. Sometimes the learner only catches the denotation of the words, but fail to consider the most important part, which is the contextual meaning of words and sentences. For instance, the sentence “ I am not sure I’d like to do that” is seemingly like considering a matter, but in fact, it is a polite expression of refusal.
Since we are teaching our students English not only to help them pass exams, but also to prepare them to use English in real life, it is important to think about the situation they will listen to English in real life and to think about the listening exercises we do in class. So we must tell them about some culture knowledge for them to use in real life and know more about foreign life. [9]
4.2.2 Speaking
The ultimate goal of foreign language teaching is using language to communicate and exchange information, so when we communicate with the people from English-speaking countries, we must pay special attention to some interference factors in cultural exchanges. For example, social norms which people must obey when they communicate with each other, including some rules and customs, such as the terms of the title, greetings, inquirements, apologia, thanks, telephone, parting; Social knowledge refers to the relationships between the family members, colleagues, friends, higher and lower levels; Values, including the relationship between people and nature, religious values, ethics and outlook on life, their world view, such as Western society emphasizes the inpidual struggle, independence, privacy, etc.; The characteristics of thinking , which means the differences of the characteristics of thinking between westerners and easterners. When they express time and place, one is from small to large, the other is from large to small. [10]
English speakers attached great importance to privacy when there are dealing with contact process, particularly between the less familiar people. It is necessary to avoid asking others affair, and sometimes even in the eyes of Chinese people for kind, caring, but for the people from the English-speaking countries, maybe it is impolite, sometimes it will cause displeasure, embarrassment and dissatisfaction. Here are three questions: (1) What’s your name? (2) How old are you? (3) Are you married? [11] Any one who knows little English can ask these questions in English. But if a student asks a young lady from a western country the above questions, he has made a serious mistake in terms of appropriacy. To avoid such silly mistakes, the teacher should help students realize that it isn’t polite to ask westerners questions concerning the age, income, marital status, and other private things, such as religious belief, political inclination, etc.
Some of the daily English expressions are deliberately vague. For example, a person in the gathering may say, “I’d better be going now. I've got a little headache.” He might want to depart or not want to stay here any more. By this time, you would not have the habit of Chinese people to ask him how he feels. If he really feels uncomfortable he will say straightly.
4.2.3 Reading
English reading ability is a comprehensive ability. If one wants to read an article, find out the main idea, use the information provided by the articles for inference, judgment, reasoning, he or she must master not only English language knowledge, but also a certain degree of expertise or background knowledge. When students were reading an article, although they didn’t encounter a new word, had no grammatical obstacles and understand the literal meaning of each sentence, they cannot understand the overall effect of the article content and the main idea. Because when students were reading, they always considered English equal as their mother tongue, or affected by the traditional culture of the mother tongue, intentionally or unintentionally to treat the context and meaning of these two cultures equally, so some errors of judgments will happen. Therefore, when we are training students’ reading abilities, we must base on training them to understand the whole passage or paragraph so that they can understand and become familiar with the material and cultural significance related to certain social background; understand the author's tone; be familiar with the article style and writing tendencies, correctly understand the true meaning of the text, and choose the correct answer. [12]
The learner’s lack of cultural background knowledge often hinders their comprehension in reading. For example, we mean pornographic by the word “huang” in Chinese, but in English, “blue” is taken instead of “yellow”. If learners don’t know, they will not understand what “blue film” or “blue video tapes” mean though the words are easy. This illustrates that words’ connotation is the result impact by language. So more attention should be paid to cultural background in learning idioms and literary works, otherwise, we have no means of understanding the implication of words and passage correctly.
4.2.4 Writing
In writing, the differences between the Chinese and western modes of thinking play an important part. Chinese are accustomed to thinking in a spiral way, while English and Americans in a linear way. This difference in thinking often leads to misunderstanding. Sometimes a learner’s composition is perfect in terms of grammar and logic, but when a foreigner reads it, he or she may misunderstand the original meaning of the sentences. [13]
In written expression, the Sino-British cultural differences are primarily in terms of cultural connotation. In different cultural backgrounds, some words have different meanings. In the writing process, students must pay much attention to them. For example, the Chinese used dragon as an analogy to courage and auspice, while to Europe and the U.S. people, ferocious dragon is a symbol of the disaster; Chinese has the saying that "When a rat runs across the street, everybody cries, ‘kill it!’” from this one may draw a conclusion that the Chinese people hate rats, but Disney introduced Mickey into his paradise to make it become a household love animals; [14] Chinese use “red eyes” to express “envy” while English use “green with envy”. [15]
When teachers train students written expression skills, they must contrast these cultural differences between China and Britain; otherwise, the students’ misunderstanding the culture, in a sense, is more serious than making errors in language. 5. The approaches to develop intercultural competence
Cultural teaching methods are perse. The primary task of teachers is using various methods to teach culture and to improve students’ sensitivity to culture and cultivate cultural awareness, so that they can initiatively and willingly absorb it and involve in the new cultural environment.
5.1 Exploring existing materials’ enlightening points about the cultural knowledge.
We should as much as possible keep an eye on the implicit cultural phenomenon of materials, consider these enlightening points of cultural knowledge as the premise to expand appropriately, and try our best to express what their cultural values should be. [16] In other words, we should introduce students to the relevant cultural background knowledge, but also actively guide them to analyze, identify, develop what is useful or healthy and discard what is not for all kinds of social ideology and cultural ideas and cultural concepts. Accumulating these enlightening points about the cultural knowledge will make students benefit. It has stressed the “attention” because in many educational materials, a lot of cultural knowledge is potential, and it is not easy to grasp. It is requiring teachers to have a certain level of cultural understanding and cultural sensitivity. And to achieve this, teachers should do much more work in lesson preparation. In order to continuously improve their own ideological and theoretical level and integrated cultural accomplishments, teachers should make "exploring cultural knowledge enlightening points” as a necessary teaching basic skill.
For example, in the students’ book of Junior English 7A, unit3 which is published by oxford press, the word “dragon” (Long) appears in the teaching material. The material teaches students to celebrate the Dragon Boat Festival. Teachers can seize this cultural knowledge to point out different cultural connotations of "dragon". Dragon in the eyes of Chinese people is an auspicious animal. There is a saying: everyone hopes his or her children to be a dragon. That means, “to with one's children have a bright future”. Dragon is a symbol of China's feudal dynasty era of imperial authority, a representative of imperial; Dragon is the Chinese nation's totem, which contains profound cultural traditions and spirit of the nation. [17] While Westerners think that the dragon is a symbol of evil, cruel raging monster, and should be eliminated. In some depicting saint and heroic legends, about the deeds of struggling with monsters such as dragons, it always ended with the monsters being killed. Understanding the different meanings of "dragon" in Chinese and foreign cultures will help students to understand the content of the materials and avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding.
5.2 Designing the introductive point of cultural education.
Teachers must be good at teaching cultural knowledge points which are discovered during lesson preparation, and combining teaching process timely by selecting appropriate methods and organic framework bridge to expand these enlightening points, so that the students can expand their cultural knowledge. As a teacher, we should strive to make English classes as a battlefield for teaching cultural knowledge. In this regard, special attention should be given to integrating theory with practice, and different teaching methods to treat different students and teaching content, and use a variety of teaching methods to create a good cultural atmosphere in classroom. In practical teaching, the following methods are available to select.
5.2.1 Discussion and contrast
Because different languages reflects different cultures, so discussion and contrast can become one of the most commonly teaching methods when teachers want to introduce cultural knowledge. Teachers can grasp the phenomenon of Western culture in the textbooks so that students can make discussions related to the cultural phenomena in our country, and do some comparative analyses. Such discussions will make it possible to bring the initiative of students into full play and at the same time, improve students’ study become more effectively, and make the classroom atmosphere become actively.
In the students’ book of Junior English Book6A, unit 8, the lessons is about Christmas, we can ask the students to compare the Western Christmas and Chinese Spring Festival, guide students analysis the difference of customs of the most important festivals in China and foreign countries, and find out that how these differences reflects different national traditions and cultural values. Most of students understand some Christmas customs, such as Christmas shopping, Santa Claus, Christmas cards, Christmas trees, Christmas songs. And students are familiar with Chinese Spring Festival customs: New Year's Eve celebrating New Year, or firecrackers, worship bumper year, money given to children as a Spring Festival gift and so on. Group discussions can deepen students’ understanding to the Western Christmas, the major festival, and also can further guide students to explore the hot discussion that the Chinese people celebrate foreign festivals. [18]
For another example, in Lesson29 of SEFC Book 1A, we can teach the different eating habits between Chinese and westerners by the way of co-operative learning like the following:
First of all, teachers design a question: Get students to fill in TABLE 1:
TABLE 1
Chinese
Westerners
staple food (主食) rice, steamed bread noodles, etc bread, etc
non-staple food(副食) pork, chicken, beef, mutton, fish, bean products, etc. beef, fish, chicken, mutton, boiled, vegetables, etc.
drinks
tea, soft drinks, liquor, etc. coffee, soft drinks, wine, etc.
table-ware(餐具) Chopsticks, spoons knives, forks, spoons
serving order all dishes served together, soup served at last. No dessert. appetizer, soup, main dish, dessert.
others ① Order/prepare a lot of dishes to show the host’s generosity and hospitality. ② All guests share
the different dishes.③ The host will
keep persuading the guests to eat more even though they may be full. ①Each has his or her own share, which is enough for themselves, usually there is nothing left afterthe meal.②The host may suggest some more to the guests, but
never
keep persuading.
Secondly, the students are pided into groups and discuss the question.
Thirdly, each group is required to collect the answers and report the answers in public.
Finally, teachers can summarize the answers from each group.
After finishing the question, every participant must be clear about the cultural difference of eating habits between the Chinese and westerners.
5.2.2 Plays in and out of class
It is proved that plays in and out of class are probably the most efficient ways of language teaching.
The role of plays and dramas manifests itself when learners perform by themselves. Mini-dramas acted by students expose them to a “process of self-confrontation” with the target cultural communicates. The learners can act out mini-dramas written by them, which show misinterpretation of something that happens in the target cultural context. The cause of the problem is usually clarified in the final scene. Cultural similarities and differences will be analyzed by way of follow-up discussion.
In the listening book of Senior English book3 unit24, the material involves "finding a job", English teachers can extract one or two advertisements from the magazine for students. Teachers can ask the students to pide into two groups, one group act as recruiters, and the other group act as applicants. By looking at the advertisements, appointing to interview, using some simple props, students can exchange views on working conditions, wages and other issues. Thus, students can understand the practical knowledge of Foreign Service work; the actors also can improve their abilities of practical language.
A short play can be broken down into sections. As learners learn (not memorize) one section, they move on to the next. By combining the sections, they have learned the play. The use of this technique enables different groups of learners to work on several short plays at the same time and leads to the creation of several shirt plays simultaneously.
Drama is a useful tool in cultural learning. A full semester’s work can be built around a drama project, or it can fill five or ten minutes at the beginning or end of a lesson. It encourages the learners to view the linguistic and cultural knowledge as a tool for communication rather than as an academic subject. It can bring life and vitality to the classroom.
5.2.3 Classroom presentation
At the beginning of each lesson, teachers can hold a "cultural corner" sessions, with 5-10 minutes. Teachers or students can introduce one aspect of Western culture, such as famous events of foreign country in history, a prominent figure in the world, or some literary works. To accumulate the cultural knowledge for a long time, students’ cultural knowledge will naturally become broad and rich.
5.2.4 Photo display
Use maps, photographs, and illustrations of the text to introduce relative cultural elements vividly. For instance, when we teach the States of Liberty which appears in the lesson 10 of junior English book3, at first we can display a wall chart of the Statue of Liberty in the United States in front of the classroom, then ask the students to identify it and then observe the Statue of Liberty carefully in the facial expressions, posture language, the hold-high arm and torch. And then teachers can introduce the following cultural background briefly: Batuoerdi, a French sculptor, builds U.S. Statue of Liberty. He takes his mother's face and his wife's body as models to manufacture it. The Goddess of Liberty not only has swallowed vicissitudes face, but also perseverance. The torch in her hand is a symbol of freedom shining all over the world. Then teachers can guide the students to make analysis of the understanding of American national spirit through the Statue of Liberty. Teachers also can allow the students to list their deepest impression in other countries or ethnic representation construction.
5.2.5 Song appreciation
The important function of the songs is to express one’s wishes. Many lyrics and melody of songs are also full of rich cultural content. Students generally are interested in songs. If time is enough in the class, teachers can choose one or two representative English songs for students to appreciate or learn to sing. It is an effective method in the teaching of English cultural knowledge to analyze the content of the lyrics and music rhythm feelings. And then the students can accept the cultural baptism. For example, a song has a lyric like "Love is blue."(Blue love). Then what representation is “blue” in English? It often expressed "frustration and anxiety". Teachers cited examples to analyze, and then asked students to appreciate this song, try to see if there are any new experiences. [19]
5.2.6 Foreign festivals on the campus
This activity is of great interest to young students. The celebration could take place in a class, a grade or the whole school with the help of the branch of the Youth League. All kinds of activities can be held in festivals, such as performance of foreign songs, dancing and dramas, holding costume parties, watching foreign films, attending lectures given by foreign experts and enjoying foreign food. By celebrating foreign festivals, learners will immerse in the target cultural context. Teachers are to give introduction on the origin and the conventional activities of the festival. A comparison of the similarities and differences between the foreign festivals and Chinese festivals can develop the learners’ cultural awareness. [20]
5.2.7 Using authentic materials
Obviously, the best way to learn foreign cultural background knowledge is to go to that country to stay there for a period of time. But we know that it is almost impossible to have such an opportunity, especially for our students. Therefore, it is practically necessary for the teachers to use authentic materials to teach culture.
Mass media, such as, film, novels and especially newspapers and magazines, is also considered as an insightful means for teaching culture, for they reflect people’s way of life in terms of variety contemporaneity and authenticity. Students in an EFL setting will spontaneously ask questions about puzzling aspects of society and life as reflected in the film or magazine. This material is by no means easy to interpret because there is so much central inference and it requires deep familiarity with and comprehensive exegeses of the culture in question. Therefore “all such material should be selected with an eye to the subculture persity of the target community”. [21]
Teachers can pick up some pertaining to some aspects of culture revealed in newspapers or magazines and to the discussions of certain questions that might elucidate western patterns of behavior.
5.2.8 Audio-visual media
Audio-visual media materials and approaches, so different from the traditional chalk and blackboard method, are widely welcome due to their vivid presentation of both language and cultural knowledge based on authentic circumstances. Educationists have reacted with imagination and enthusiasm in exploiting the capabilities of modern technology. Some teachers believe that using media in the teaching of EFL in the classroom is certain to bring about a superior result. It can bring in cultural input in a clear and realistic way as compared with traditional, media-free instruction. [22]
5.3 Inspiring students to maintain adequate cultural interest in learning.
Obviously, it is essential to develop intercultural communication abilities in class, based on the students’ language skills. On the other hand, attention should also be given to help learners gain an awareness of the need that they will have to continue learning the language and foreign culture on their own once they leave the classroom. [23] And we must guide and train the students’ interests to study the social and cultural background, make the students to spend the effort in extra-curricular and self-expanding cultural knowledge levels. After all, the time in the classroom is limited, and the teaching contents is narrow, and therefore it is necessary for students to read English magazines, newspapers, look outstanding English original works or watch some foreign films, take part in some cultural Shorans, seminars by using after-school time. As the saying goes “interest is the best teacher," When the students consider to learn English as a hobby, cultural introduction has undoubtedly been the best in the realm of learning.
6. Conclusion
Today, international cultural exchange is going on directly and indirectly, with its new scope, content, form and method unheard of before. To confine oneself to one’s own culture is to go against the times. Now, in our country, the open policy towards the rest of the world has become a fundamental policy. This policy has brought about much broader prospects for international cultural exchange. Therefore, overcoming cultural barriers has become more and more important. Only by surmounting the barriers can we get a high degree of cultural exchange, make use of good things from other cultures and build up our cultural and material wealth. This exchange will contribute to understanding and friendship among nations as well as development in science and culture.
In the practical teaching, the culture teaching should be presented as many detailed as possible in the teaching syllabus. The teaching materials should not be located only in the source culture and should be a constructive attempt to be explicit about intercultural behavior and communication, especially, in view of the limited language available at this level. Besides, in the classroom teaching, teachers are expected to use a variety of teaching methods that are suitable to students’ level.
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